Trauma and posttraumatic stress symptoms predict alcohol and other drug consequence trajectories in the first year of college

Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology

Volumn 80, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 426-439

  Read, Jennifer P ^a   Colder, Craig R ^a   Merrill, Jennifer E ^a   Ouimette, Paige ^b   White, Jacquelyn ^c   Swartout, Ashlyn ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY AT BUFFALO   (United States)

^b SYRACUSE VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA AT GREENSBORO   (United States)

Author keywords

college; comorbidity; posttraumatic stress disorder; substance use

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; ILLICIT DRUG;

ADULT; ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ALCOHOLISM; ARTICLE; COLLEGE STUDENT; DRUG ABUSE; FEMALE; HELPLESSNESS; HUMAN; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; NEUROSIS; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; SEX DIFFERENCE; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SYMPTOM; ADDICTION; ADOLESCENT; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; HEALTH SURVEY; LIFE EVENT; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; STUDENT; UNIVERSITY;

ADOLESCENT; ALCOHOL DRINKING; FEMALE; HEALTH SURVEYS; HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; STRESS DISORDERS, POST-TRAUMATIC; STUDENTS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; UNIVERSITIES; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84867068125     PISSN: 0022006X     EISSN: 19392117     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0028210     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Adkins, J. W., Weathers, F. W., McDevitt-Murphy, M., & Daniels, J. B. (2008). Psychometric properties of seven self-report measures of posttraumatic stress disorder in college students with mixed civilian trauma exposure. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1393-1402. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.02.002
2. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
4. Andrykowski, M. A., Cordova, M. J., Studts, J. L., & Miller, T. W. (1998). Posttraumatic stress disorder after treatment for breast cancer: Prevalence of diagnosis and use of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C) as a screening instrument. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 586-590. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.66.3.586
5. Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55, 469-480. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469
6. Arnett, J. J. (2005). The developmental context of substance use in emerging adulthood. Journal of Drug Issues, 35, 235-254. doi:10.1177/ 002204260503500202
7. Arria, A. M., Caldeira, K. M., O'Grady, K. E., Vincent, K. B., Fitzelle, D. B., Johnson, E. P., & Wish, E. D. (2008). Drug exposure opportunities and use patterns among college students: Results of a longitudinal prospective cohort study. Substance Abuse, 29, 19-38. doi:10.1080/08897070802418451
8. Arria, A. M., Vincent, K. B., & Caldeira, K. M. (2009). Measuring liability for substance use disorder among college students: Implications for screening and early intervention. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 35, 233-241. doi:10.1080/00952990903005957
9. Back, S. E., Dansky, B. S., Carroll, K. M., Foa, E. B., & Brady, K. T. (2001). Exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD among cocainedependent individuals: Description of procedures. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 21, 35-45. doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(01)00181-7
10. Bauer, I., & Baumeister, R. F. (2011). Self-regulatory strength. In K. D. Vohs & R. F. Baumeister (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 64-82). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
11. Bernat, J. A., Ronfeldt, H. M., Calhoun, K. S., & Arias, I. (1998). Prevalence of traumatic events and peritraumatic predictors of posttraumatic stress symptoms in a nonclinical sample of college students. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11, 645-664. doi:10.1023/A:1024485130934
12. Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist (PCL). Behav-iour Research and Therapy, 34, 669-673. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2
13. Blanco, C., Okuda, M., Wright, C., Hasin, D. S., Grant, B. F., Shang-Min, L., & Olfson, M. (2008). Mental health of college students and their non-college attending peers: Results from the national Epidemiologic Study on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 1429-1437. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.65.12.1429
14. Bornovalova, M. A., Ouimette, P., Crawford, A. V., & Levy, R. (2009). Testing gender effects on the mechanisms explaining the association between posttraumatic stress symptoms and substance use frequency. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 685-692. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.04.005
15. Borsari, B., & Carey, K. B. (2001). Peer influences on college drinking: A review of the research. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 391-424. doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(01)00098-0
16. Borsari, B., Read, J. P., & Campbell, J. (2008). Posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorders in college students: Implications for counseling centers. Journal of College Student Psychotherapy, 22, 61-85. doi:10.1080/87568220801960720
17. Breslau, N. (2001). The epidemiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: What is the extent of the problem Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 62, 16-22.
18. Breslau, N., & Davis, G. C. (1992). Posttraumatic stress disorder in an urban population of young adults: Risk factors for chronicity. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 671-675.
19. Breslau, N., Davis, G. C., Andreski, P., Peterson, E. L., & Schultz, L. R. (1997). Sex differences in posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 54, 1044-1048. doi:10.1001/archpsyc .1997.01830230082012
20. Broman-Fulks, J. J., Ruggiero, K. J., Green, B. A., Kilpatrick, D. G., Danielson, C. K., Resnick, H. S., & Saunders, B. E. (2006). Taxometric investigation of PTSD: Data from two nationally representative samples. Behavior Therapy, 37, 364-380. doi:10.1016/j.beth.2006.02.006
21. Caldeira, K. M., Arria, A. M., O'Grady, K. E., Vincent, K. B., & Wish, E. D. (2008). The occurrence of cannabis use disorders and other cannabis-related problems among first-year college students. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 397-411. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.10.001
22. Charuvastra, A., & Cloitre, M. (2008). Social bonds and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 301-328. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085650
23. Chilcoat, H. D., & Breslau, N. (1998). Investigations of causal pathways between PTSD and drug use disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 827-840. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(98)00069-0
24. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analyses for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
25. Colder, C. R., Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Flaherty, B. P., Hedeker, D., Segawa, E., Flay, B. R., & The Tobacco Etiology Research Network. (2006). The natural history of college smoking: Trajectories of daily smoking during the freshman year. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 2212-2222. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2006. 02.011
26. Cook, J., Jakupcak, M., Rosenheck, R., Fontana, A., & McFall, M. (2009). Influence of PTSD symptom clusters on smoking status among helpseeking Iraq and Afghanistan veterans. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 1189-1195. doi:10.1093/ntr/ntp123
27. Curran, P. J. (2000). A latent curve framework for the study of developmental trajectories in adolescent substance use. In J. S. Rose, L. Chassin, C. C. Presson, & S. J. Sherman (Eds.), Multivariate applications in substance use research (pp. 1-42). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
28. Curran, P. J., & Muthén, B. O. (1999). The application of latent curve analysis to testing developmental theories in intervention research. American Journal of Community Psychology, 27, 567-595. doi:10.1023/A:1022137429115
29. Dawson, D. A., Grant, B. F., Stinson, F. S., & Chou, P. S. (2004). Another look at heavy episodic drinking and alcohol use disorders among college and non-college youth. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 65, 477-488.
30. Del Boca, F. K., Darkes, J., Greenbaum, P. E., & Goldman, M. S. (2004). Up close and personal: Temporal variability in the drinking of individual college students during their first year. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 155-164. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.2.155
31. Donovan, B., Padin-Rivera, E., & Kowaliw, S. (2001). "Transcend": Initial outcomes from a posttraumatic stress disorder/substance abuse treatment program. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 757-772. doi:10.1023/A: 1013094206154
32. Epstein, J. N., Saunders, B. E., Kilpatrick, D. G., & Resnick, H. S. (1998). PTSD as a mediator between childhood rape and alcohol use in adult women. Child Abuse & Neglect, 22, 223-234. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(97)00133-6
33. Flynn, H. A. (2000). Comparison of cross-sectional and daily reports in studying the relationship between depression and use of alcohol in response to stress in college students. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 48-52. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb04552.x
34. Goldstein, A. L., Flett, G. L., & Wekerle, C. (2010). Child maltreatment, alcohol use and drinking consequences among male and female college students: An examination of drinking motives as mediators. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 636-639. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.02.002
35. Hoyt, T., & Yeater, E. A. (2010). Comparison of posttraumatic stress disorder symptom structure models in Hispanic and White college students. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2, 19-30. doi:10.1037/a0018745
36. Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
37. Jacobsen, L. K., Southwick, S. M., & Kosten, T. R. (2001). Substance use disorders in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder: A review of the literature. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1184-1190. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.8.1184
38. Jakupcak, M., Tull, M. T., McDermott, M., Kaysen, D., Hunt, S., & Simpson, T. (2010). PTSD symptom clusters in relationship to alcohol misuse among Iraq and Afghanistan war veterans seeking postdeployment VA health care. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 840-843. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.03.023
39. John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and theoretical perspectives. In L. A. Pervin & O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of personality (2nd ed., pp. 102-138). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
40. Kahler, C. W., Strong, D. R., & Read, J. P. (2005). Toward efficient and comprehensive measurement of the alcohol problems continuum in college students: The Brief Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25, 1180-1189.
41. Kassel, J. D., Jackson, S. I., & Unrod, M. (2000). Generalized expectancies for negative mood regulation and problem drinking among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 61, 332-340.
42. Keane, T. M., Marshall, A. D., & Taft, C. T. (2006). Posttraumatic stress disorder: Etiology, epidemiology, and treatment outcome. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 161-197. doi:10.1146/annurev .clinpsy.2.022305.095305
43. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1995. 03950240066012
44. Khantzian, E. J. (2003). The self-medication hypothesis revisited: The dually diagnosed patient. Primary Psychiatry, 10, 47-48.
45. Klanecky, A. K., Harrington, J., & McChargue, D. E. (2008). Child sexual abuse, dissociation, and alcohol: Implications of chemical dissociation via blackouts among college women. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 34, 277-284. doi:10.1080/00952990802013441
46. Kubany, E. S., Haynes, S. Y., Leisen, M. B., Owens, J. A., Kaplan, A. S., Watson, S. B., & Burns, K. (2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12, 210-224. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.12. 2.210
47. Lang, A. J., Laffaye, C., Satz, L. E., Dresselhaus, T. R., & Stein, M. B. (2003). Sensitivity and specificity of the PTSD Checklist in detecting PTSD in female veterans in primary care. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 257-264. doi:10.1023/A:1023796007788
48. Larimer, M. E., Turner, A. P., Mallet, K. A., & Geisner, I. M. (2004). Predicting drinking behavior and alcohol-related problems among fraternity and sorority members: Examining the role of descriptive and injunctive norms. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 18, 203-212. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.18.3.203
49. Lauterbach, D., & Vrana, S. (2001). The relationship among personality variables, exposure to traumatic events, and severity of posttraumatic stress symptoms. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14, 29-45. doi:10.1023/A:1007831430706
50. Lepore, S. J. (1997). Social-environmental influences on the chronic stress process. In B. H. Gottleib (Ed.), Coping with chronic stress (pp. 133-160). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
51. Lewis, M. A., Neighbors, C., Oster-Aaland, L., Kirkeby, B. S., & Larimer, M. E. (2007). Indicated prevention for incoming freshmen: Personalized normative feedback and high-risk drinking. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2495-2508. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.06.019
52. Lex, B. W. (1991). Some gender differences in alcohol and polysubstance users. Health Psychology, 10, 121-132. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.10.2.121
53. Martens, M. P., Neighbors, C., Lewis, M. A., Lee, C. M., Oster-Aaland, L., & Larimer, M. E. (2008). The roles of negative affect and coping motives in the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 69, 412-419.
54. Marx, B. P., & Sloan, D. M. (2002). The role of emotion in the psychological functioning of adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. Behavior Therapy, 33, 563-577. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(02)80017-X
55. McCabe, S. E., West, B. T., & Wechsler, H. (2007). Trends and collegelevel characteristics associated with the non-medical use of prescription drugs among U.S. college students from 1993-2001. Addiction, 102, 455-465. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01733.x
56. McCauley, J., Ruggiero, K. J., Resnick, H. S., Conoscenti, L. M., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (2009). Forcible, drug-facilitated, and incapacitated rape in relation to substance use problems: Results from a national sample of college women. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 458-462. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.12.004
57. McDevitt-Murphy, M. E., Murphy, J. G., Monahan, C. M., Flood, A. M., & Weathers, F. W. (2010). Unique patterns of substance misuse associated with PTSD, depression, and social phobia. Journal of Dual Diagnosis, 6, 94-110. doi:10.1080/15504261003701445
58. McFall, M. E., Mackay, P. W., & Donovan, D. M. (1992). Combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder and severity of substance abuse in Vietnam veterans. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 53, 357-363.
59. McFarlane, A. C., Browne, D., Bryant, R. A., O'Donnell, M., Silove, D., Creamer, M., & Horsley, K. (2009). A longitudinal analysis of alcohol consumption and the risk of posttraumatic symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 118, 166-172. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2009.01.017
60. Mendlowicz, M. V., & Stein, M. B. (2000). Quality of life in individuals with anxiety disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 669-682. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.5.669
61. Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R. F. (2000). Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle Psychological Bulletin, 126, 247-259. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.247
62. Muthén, L., & Muthén, B. (2010). Mplus: The comprehensive modeling program for applied researchers (Version 6.1) [Computer software]. Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
63. Mylle, J., & Maes, M. (2004). Partial posttraumatic stress disorder revisited. Journal of Affective Disorders, 78, 37-48. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(02) 00218-5
64. Najavits, L. M. (2002). Seeking Safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. New York, NY: Guilford Press.
65. Neighbors, C., Geisner, I. M., & Lee, C. M. (2008). Perceived marijuana norms and social expectancies among entering college student marijuana users. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 22, 433-438. doi:10.1037/0893-164X. 22.3.433
66. Neighbors, C., Lee, C. M., Lewis, M. A., Fossos, N., & Larimer, M. E. (2007). Are social norms the best predictor of outcomes among heavy drinking college students Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 68, 556-565.
67. O'Hare, T., & Sherrer, M. V. (2000). Co-occurring stress and substance abuse in college first offenders. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 3, 29-44. doi:10.1300/J137v03n01-02
68. O'Malley, P. M., & Johnston, L. D. (2002). Epidemiology of alcohol and other drug use among American college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 14(Suppl.), 23-39.
69. O'Neill, S. E., Parra, G. R., & Sher, K. J. (2001). Clinical relevance of heavy drinking during the college years: Cross-sectional and longitudinal perspectives. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 15, 350-359. doi: 10.1037/0893-164X.15.4.350
70. Ouimette, P., Coolhart, D., Funderburk, J., & Brown, P. J. (2007). Precipitants of first substance use in recently abstinent substance use disordered patients with PTSD. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 1719-1727. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2006.11.020
71. Peirce, J. M., Burke, C. K., Stoller, K. B., Neufeld, K. J., & Brooner, R. K. (2009). Assessing traumatic event exposure: Comparing the Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire to the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV. Psychological Assessment, 21, 210-218. doi:10.1037/a0015578
72. Perkonigg, A., Kessler, R. C., Storz, S., & Wittchen, H. U. (2000). Traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: Prevalence, risk factors and comorbidity. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 101, 46-59. doi:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2000.101001046.x
73. Read, J. P., Brown, P. J., & Kahler, C. W. (2004). Substance use and posttraumatic stress disorder: Symptom interplay and effects on outcome. Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1665-1672. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh .2004.02.061
74. Read, J. P., Farrow, S. M., Jaanimagi, U., & Ouimette, P. C. (2009). Assessing trauma and traumatic stress via the Internet: Measurement equivalence and participant reactions. Traumatology, 15, 94-102. doi: 10.1177/ 1534765608325121
75. Read, J. P., Kahler, C. W., Strong, D., & Colder, C. R. (2006). Development and preliminary validation of the Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 67, 169-177.
76. Read, J. P., Merrill, J. E., Kahler, C. W., & Strong, D. S. (2007). Predicting functional outcomes among college drinkers: Reliability and predictive validity of the Young Adult Alcohol Consequences Questionnaire. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 2597-2610. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2007.06.021
77. Read, J. P., Ouimette, P., White, J., Colder, C., & Farrow, S. (2011). Rates of DSM-IV-TR trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among newly matriculated college students. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 3, 148-156. doi:10.1037/a0021260
78. Reed, P. L., Anthony, J. C., & Breslau, N. (2007). Incidence of drug problems in young adults exposed to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: Do early life experiences and predispositions matter Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1435-1442. doi:10.1001/archpsyc. 64.12.1435
79. Rimsza, M. E., & Moses, K. S. (2005). Substance abuse on the college campus. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 52, 307-319. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2004. 10.008
80. Ruggiero, K. J., Del Ben, K., Scotti, J. R., & Rabalais, A. E. (2003). Psychometric properties of the PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 495-502. doi:10.1023/A:1025714729117
81. Ruscio, A. M., Ruscio, J., & Keane, T. M. (2002). The latent structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: A taxometric investigation of reactions to extreme stress. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 290-301. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.290
82. Saladin, M. E., Brady, K. T., Dansky, B. S., & Kilpatrick, D. G. (1995). Understanding comorbidity between PTSD and substance use disorders: Two preliminary investigations. Addictive Behaviors, 20, 643-655. doi: 10.1016/0306-4603(95)00024-7
83. Scarpa, A., Fikretoglu, D., Bowser, F., Hurley, J. D., Pappert, C. A., Romero, N., & Van Voorhees, E. (2002). Community violence exposure in university students: A replication and extension. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 17, 253-272. doi:10.1177/0886260502017003002
84. Schnurr, P. P., Ford, J. D., Friedman, M. J., Green, B. L., Dain, B. J., & Sengupta, A. (2000). Predictors and outcomes of posttraumatic stress disorder in World War II veterans exposed to mustard gas. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 258-268. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.2.258
85. Schnurr, P. P., Friedman, M. J., & Vernardy, N. C. (2002). Research on posttraumatic stress disorder: Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and assessment. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58, 877-889.
86. Schulenberg, J. E., & Maggs, J. L. (2002). A developmental perspective on alcohol use and heavy drinking during adolescence and the transition to young adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 114, 54-70.
87. Schützwohl, M., & Maercker, A. (1999). Effects of varying diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder are endorsing the concept of partial PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 12, 155-165. doi:10.1023/A: 1024706702133
88. Sher, K. J., & Rutledge, P. C. (2007). Heavy drinking across the transition to college: Predicting first-semester heavy drinking from pre-college variables. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 819-835. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh .2006.06.024
89. Shipherd, J. C., Stafford, J., & Tanner, L. R. (2005). Predicting alcohol and drug abuse in Persian Gulf War veterans: What role do PTSD symptoms play Addictive Behaviors, 30, 595-599. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh. 2004.07.004
90. Simons, J. S., Gaher, R. M., Oliver, M., Bush, J. A., & Palmer, M. A. (2005). An experience sampling study of associations between affect and alcohol use and problems among college students. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 459-469.
91. Smyth, J. M., Hockemeyer, J. R., Heron, K. E., Wonderlich, S. A., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2008). Prevalence, type, disclosure, and severity of adverse life events in college students. Journal of American College Health, 57, 69-76. doi:10.3200/JACH.57.1.69-76
92. Spear L. P(2002). Alcohol's effects on adolescents. Women and Alcohol: An Update 24.287-291.
93. Stein, M. B., Walker, J. R., Hazen, A. L., & Forde, D. R. (1997). Full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder: Findings from a community survey. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 1114-1119.
94. Stewart, S. H. (1996). Alcohol abuse in individuals exposed to trauma: A critical review. Psychological Bulletin, 120, 83-112. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.120. 1.83
95. Stewart, S. H., & Conrod, P. J. (2003). Psychosocial models of functional associations between posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use disorder. In P. C. Ouimette & J. Brown (Eds.), Trauma and substance abuse: Causes, consequences, and treatment of comorbid disorders (pp. 29-55). doi:10.1037/10460-002
96. Stewart, S. H., Conrod, P. J., Pihl, R. O., & Dongier, M. (1999). Relations between posttraumatic stress symptoms dimensions and substance dependence in a community-recruited sample of substance abusing women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 78-88. doi:10.1037/0893-164X.13.2.78
97. Stewart, S. H., Pihl, R. O., Conrod, P. J., & Dongier, M. (1998). Functional associations among trauma, PTSD, and substance-related disorders. Addictive Behaviors, 23, 797-812. doi:10.1016/S0306-4603(98)00070-7
98. Taft, C. T., Kaloupek, D. G., Schumm, J. A., Marshall, A. D., Panuzio, J., King, D. W., & Keane, T. M. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, physiological reactivity, alcohol problems, and aggression among military veterans. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116, 498-507. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.116.3.498
99. Thompson, M. P., Spitler, H., McCoy, T. P., Marra, L., Sutfin, E. L., Rhodes, S. D., & Brown, C. (2009). The moderating role of gender in the prospective associations between expectancies and alcohol-related negative consequences among college students. Substance Use & Misuse, 44, 934-942. doi:10.1080/10826080802490659
100. Tremblay, P. F., Graham, K., Wells, S., Harris, R., Pulford, R., & Roberts, S. E. (2010). When do first-year college students drink most during the academic year An Internet-based study of daily and weekly drinking. Journal of American College Health, 58, 401-411. doi:10.1080/07448480903540465
101. Triffleman, E., Carroll, K., & Kellogg, S. (1999). Substance dependence posttraumatic stress disorder therapy: An integrated cognitivebehavioral approach. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 17, 3-14. doi:10.1016/S0740-5472(98)00067-1
102. Ullman, S. E., & Filipas, H. H. (2005). Gender differences in social reactions to abuse disclosures, post-abuse coping, and PTSD of child sexual abuse survivors. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29, 767-782. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2005.01.005
103. Weathers, F. W., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1991). The PTSD Checklist-Civilian Version (PCL-C). Available from F. W. Weathers, National Center for PTSD, Boston Veterans Affairs Medical Center, 150 South Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02130.
104. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993, October). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
105. White, H. R., Labouvie, E. W., & Papadaratsakis, V. (2005). Changes in substance use during the transition to adulthood: A comparison of college students and their non-college age peers. Journal of Drug Issues, 35, 281-306. doi:10.1177/002204260503500204
106. Wood, M. D., Read, J. P., Palfai, T. P., & Stevenson, J. F. (2001). Social influence processes and college student drinking: The mediational role of alcohol outcome expectations. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 62, 32-43.
107. Wu, L. T., Pilowsky, D. J., Schlenger, W. E., & Hasin, D. (2007). Alcohol use disorders and the use of treatment services among college-age young adults. Psychiatric Services, 58, 192-200. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.58.2.192
108. Zlotnick, C., Franklin, C. L., & Zimmerman, M. (2002). Does "subthreshold" posttraumatic stress disorder have any clinical relevance Comprehensive Psychiatry, 43, 413-419. doi:10.1053/comp.2002.35900