The Two Halves of Sports-Diplomacy

Diplomacy and Statecraft

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 576-592

  Murray, Stuart ^a  

^a BOND UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84866141606     PISSN: 09592296     EISSN: 1557301X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09592296.2012.706544     Document Type: Article

References (101)

1. M. Golden, "War and Peace in the Ancient and Modern Olympics," Greece & Rome, 58/1(2011), p. 5.
2. M. Duffy, "Prose & Poetry-Sir Henry Newbolt": http://www.firstworldwar.com/poetsandprose/newbolt.htm.
3. See S. Murray and G.A. Pigman, "'It's Our Game': Mapping the Hectic Convergence of Diplomacy and International Sport." Paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Convention, San Diego, CA (April 2012).
4. H. Bull, The Anarchical Society: A Study of Order in World Politics (New York, 1977), p. 156.
5. Then see B. Buzan, From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalisation (Cambridge, 2004)
6. C. Jönsson, "Theorizing Diplomacy," in B.J.C. McKercher, ed., The Routledge Handbook of Diplomacy and Statecraft (London, New York, 2012), pp. 15-28
7. P. Sharp, Diplomatic Theory of International Relations (Cambridge, 2009).
8. Cf. S. Murray, "Consolidating the Gains made in Diplomacy Studies: a taxonomy," International Studies Perspectives 9, no. 2 (2008), pp. 21-39.
9. Raymond Cohen, "Putting Diplomatic Studies on the Map," Diplomatic Studies Program Newsletter (4 May 1998), p. 1
10. M. Wight and H. Butterfield, Diplomatic Investigations (Cambridge, MA, 1966), pp. 10-12.
11. In this sense, this constitutes the Clausewitzian dichotomy that "war is nothing more than the continuation of politics by other means."
12. See A. Herberg-Rothe, Clausewitz's Puzzle: The Political Theory of War (Oxford, 2007)
13. B. Heuser, "Clausewitz in the Nuclear Age," in idem., Reading Clausewitz (London, 2002), pp. 143-78
14. M. Howard, Clausewitz: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford, 1983).
15. For further discussion on the exclusivity of war and diplomacy see S. Sofer, "Guardians of the Practitioners' Virtue: Diplomats at the Warriors Den," Diplomacy and Statecraft, 16(2005), p. 2.
16. Cf. B. Steiner, "Preventive Diplomacy in Historical Perspective," Diplomacy and Statecraft, 9(1998), pp. 1-23.
17. Wight and Butterfield, Diplomatic Investigations, pp. 10-12.
18. See P. Sharp and G. Wiseman, The Diplomatic Corps as an Institution of International Society (New York, 2008).
19. For example, J. Mori, The Culture of Diplomacy: Britain in Europe, c. 1750-1830 (Manchester, 2011).
20. Cf. G. Wiseman, "Polylateralism" and New Modes of Global Dialogue, Leicester Diplomatic Studies Programme, Discussion Paper 59 (Leicester: 1999)
21. B. Hocking, "Multistakeholder Diplomacy: Forms, Functions and Frustrations," in J. Kurbaliga and V. Katrandjiev, eds., Multistakeholder Diplomacy: Challenges and Opportunities (Malta, 2006).
22. See M. Dillon and A.Q. Neal, eds., Foucault on Politics, Security and War (Basingstoke, New York, 2008)
23. D.L. Jarvis, ed., International relations and the "third debate": postmodernism and its critics (Westport, CT, 2002)
24. A. Linklater, Transformation of Political Community: Ethical Foundations of the Post-Westphalian Era (Cambridge, 1998).
25. Cf. J.R. Kelly, "The New Diplomacy: Evolution of a Revolution," Diplomacy & Statecraft, 21(2010), p. 287
26. A. Ramsay, "Is Diplomacy Dead?," Contemporary Review, 288(Autumn, 2006), p. 273.
27. See, for example, J. Hoffman, "Reconstructing Diplomacy," British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 5/4(2003), pp. 525-42.
28. For example (p. 526), Hoffman claims that "the state is incoherent and that this incoherence necessarily extends itself to statist diplomacy traditional or conventional notions of diplomacy" must be avoided to utilise "the plural nature of modern diplomacy."
29. Also see, Sharp, Diplomatic Theory.
30. Ramsay, "Diplomacy Dead?"
31. Ibid., p. 273.
32. George Modelski, Principles of World Politics (New York, 1972), pp. 187-190.
33. Except where noted, the rest of this paragraph is based on C. Ross, Independent Diplomat: Dispatches from an Unaccountable Elite (Ithaca, NY, 2007), pp. 207-22.
34. R. Jackson, "Martin Wight's Thought on Diplomacy," Diplomacy & Statecraft 13/4(2002), pp. 14-15.
35. Interview with Claude Laverdure, Paris (September 2005). At the time, Laverdure was Canadian ambassador to France.
36. Cf. Modelski, World Politics.
37. Dr. Sir Lesley Colin Patterson is an obese, lecherous, and offensive fictional character-the Australian cultural attaché to the Far East-portrayed by the Australian comedian Barry Humphries. In Humphries' words: "The English merchant bankers and commodity brokers and Australian accountants there all recognised Les as someone they knew in the Australian diplomatic corps, and took him to their hearts."
38. Barry Humphries, A Nice Night's Entertainment: Sketches and Monologues (London, 1982), p. 178.
39. John Hemery's Centre for Political and Diplomatic Studies (cpds.co.uk) or the Asia-Pacific College of Diplomacy (apcd.anu.edu.au/) are two strong examples of experienced and specialised diplomatic training centres.
40. A. Arsenault, "Public Diplomacy 2.0," in P. Seib, ed., Toward a New Public Diplomacy: Redirecting U.S. Foreign Policy (Basington, 2009), pp. 135-53
41. N. Cull, ed., Public Diplomacy: Lessons from the Past (Los Angeles, CA, 2009)
42. D.M. Oglesby, "Statecraft at the Crossroads: A New Diplomacy", SAIS Review, 29/2(2009), pp. 93-106.
43. For example, the University of Southern California's Centre for Public Diplomacy.
44. G. Evans and B. Grant, Australia's Foreign Relations in the World of the 1990s (Melbourne, 1995), p. 66.
45. F.O. Hampson and D.F. Oliver, "Pulpit Diplomacy: A Critical Assessment of the Axworthy Doctrine," International Journal, 53(1998), pp. 379-406
46. P. Pahlavi and S. Roussel, "Rapport d'atelier, La diplomatie publique: un outil de prévention?" Canadian Consortium on Human Security and Canada Research Chair in Canadian Foreign and Defence Policy (Montréal, 10 February 2006), p. 3
47. E. Potter, "Canada and the New Public Diplomacy," International Journal, 58/1(2002-2003), pp. 43-64.
48. Thanks to Dr. Caitlin Byrne of Bond University for help with this definition.
49. R. Redeker, "Sport as an opiate of international relations: The myth and illusion of sport as a tool of foreign diplomacy," Sport in Society, 11/4(2008), pp. 495-96.
50. Consider the case of French cycling star Richard Virenque. Despite convicted of cheating, taking drugs, lying by the courts, and sentenced to forfeitures that were tantamount to a prison term, Virenque saw his popularity soar to unprecedented levels.
51. For Redeker, "Sport as an opiate," "a single one of these infractions, on the part of a political figure, would have had the opposite effect of increasing the hateful suspicion directed toward politicians."
52. P. Horton, "Sport as Public Diplomacy: Australia's Ambivalent Embrace of the Beijing Olympics," International Journal of Sport, 25/7(2008), p. 861.
53. H. Nicolson, Diplomacy (Oxford, 1939), p. 126.
54. J. Cain, "The Power of the Ball: A Foreign Policy Tool that Beats the Carrot and the Stick" (in possession of author).
55. Also see "Conference Report: The 2nd Hague Diplomacy Conference. 18-20 June 2009," Netherlands Institute of International Relations "Clingendael": www.clingendael.nl/cdsp/events/20090618/20090600_cdsp_conference_report_second_the_hague_diplomacy_conference.pdf.
56. United States Department of State, "What is Sports Diplomacy?": http://exchanges.state.gov/sports/diplomacy.html.
57. C. Walters, "Sports Diplomacy is the New Comeback Kid": USC Center on Public Diplomacy: http://uscpublicdiplomacy.org/index.php/newswire/cpdblog_detail/070803_sports_diplomacy_is_the_new_comeback_kid/.
58. M. Keech and B. Houlihan, "Sport and the end of apartheid," Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs, 88/349(1999), pp. 109-21.
59. J. Rupert, "Cricket Diplomacy May Smooth Tension Between India, Pakistan": http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/cricket-diplomacy-at-world-cup-may-smooth-tension-between-indiapakistan.html.
60. "Saarc summit: India, Pak declare 'new chapter' in ties," Times of India (10 November 2011): http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-11-10/india/30381615_1_india-and-pakistan-newchapter-sir-creek.
61. The two prime ministers also met informally on 26 March 2012 whilst attending the Nuclear Security Summit in Seoul, South Korea.
62. Joseph Blatter, "Football has a socio-cultural dimension," FIFA: http://www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/federation/president/presidentialcolumn/news/newsid=1089403.html#blatter+football+socio+cultural+dimension,
63. In a roving 2010 speech about the King James Bible and sport, Elizabeth II, a keen sportswoman herself, said "one of the most powerful ways to build communities and create harmony, is through sport and games." She has seen first-hand "just how important sport is in bringing people together from all backgrounds, from all walks of life and from all age-groups." She speaks fondly of "how important sport and games were to become in promoting harmony and common interests."
64. In "Queen's Christmas Message Hails Unifying Role of Sport," BBC World News (December 2010): http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12078528.
65. S.J. Jackson and S. Haigh, "Between and Beyond Politics: Sport and Foreign Policy in a Globalizing World," Sport in Society, 11/4(2008), p. 354.
66. L. Allison, The Changing Politics of Sport (Manchester, 1993), p. 17.
67. Redeker, "Sport as an opiate," p. 499.
68. Allison, Changing Politics, p. 5.
69. Redeker, "Sport as an opiate," p. 499.
70. See A. Cooper, Celebrity Diplomacy (Boulder, CO, 2007).
71. NGOs and IGOs are crossing into areas that once deemed the preserve of the nation-state. For example, UNICEF demonstrated the correlation between sport, diplomacy, and development by introducing a 2004 "Sport for Development" programme that is still going strong. Part of this programme uses high-profile athletes to raise awareness of core UN issues such as peace, development, and security. The relationship is "win-win." More and more sports stars are beginning to realise that they have both the responsibility and the power to affect international publics. As a case in point, soccer star and mega-brand David Beckham has done excellent work as a UN Goodwill Ambassador and Messenger of Peace. In 2009, for example, Beckham was in South Africa to highlight the global progress that made in preventing Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTC) of HIV. Previously, in 2008, he travelled to Sierra Leone with UNICEF to draw attention to the issue of child survival. Beckham has been involved with UNICEF since 1999.
72. UNICEF, "Sport for Development": http://www.unicef.org/sports/
73. G.R. Berridge, Diplomacy: Theory and Practice (London, 2002), p. 170.
74. Ibid., p. 171
75. C.M. Constantinou, On the Way to Diplomacy (Minneapolis, MN, 1996), pp. 95-97.
76. Berridge, Diplomacy, p. 6.
77. Ibid., p. 173.
78. A. Watson, Diplomacy: The Dialogue Between States (New York, 1984)
79. B. Stewart, M. Nicholson, A. Smith, and H. Westerbeek, Australian Sport: Better by Design? (New York, 2005), p. 17.
80. J. Defrance and J.M. Chamot, "The Voice of Sport: Expressing a foreign policy through silent cultural action: The case of French foreign policy after the Second World War," Sport in Society, 11/4(2008), p. 395.
81. During the ancient Olympics, the word for competition was agon, from which the English word agony is derived; similarly, the etymology of the words "athlete" and "athletics" come from the Greek word athlos, a contest taking place in a stadium or on a battlefield.
82. See E. Segal, "Forward," in W.E. Sweet, Sport and Recreation in Ancient Greece (Oxford, 1987).
83. Golden, "War and Peace," p. 5.
84. N. Fischer, "Competitive Sport's Imitation of War: Imaging the Completeness of Virtue," Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 29(2002), p. 16.
85. Redeker, "Sport as an Opiate," pp. 497-98.
86. J.A. Delay, "The Curveball and the Pitch: Sports Diplomacy in the Age of Global Media," Journal of the International Institute, 7/1(1999).
87. One oft-touted example of sports fanning the flames of conflict instead of mitigating differences is the "Football Wars" between El Salvador and Honduras in 1969. Rising tensions between the two states stemmed from a flow of immigrants from El Salvador into Honduras. As economic problems worsened, many Hondurans blamed the immigrants. The Honduran government finally expelled the immigrants from El Salvador. As tensions between the two countries increased, qualifying matches between the two nations began for the World Cup. After the matches, violence erupted from both sets of fans. Although the conflict between El Salvador and Honduras went much deeper than sports, the ultra-nationalist sentiments of the clashing fans gave the war its name.
88. See R. Ingham, "Football's just a game isn't it?": Mail & Guardian online: http://mg.co.za/article/2010-05-12-footballs-just-a-game-isnt-it
89. Jackson and Haigh, "Between and Beyond," p. 351.
90. Eight Palestinian terrorists from the "Black September" organisation killed two members of the Israeli Olympic team and then took nine others hostage. The situation ended with a gunfight that left five terrorists and all nine hostages dead.
91. S. Kuper, Soccer Against the Enemy: How the World's Most Popular Sports Starts and Fuels Revolutions and Keeps Dictators in Power (New York, 2010), p. 293.
92. K. Toohey, "Terrorism, sport and public policy in the risk society," Sport in Society, 11/4(2008), p. 429.
93. Golden, "War and Peace," p. 4.
94. Anonymous official cited in Walters, "Sports-diplomacy."
95. Redeker, "Sport as an opiate," p. 18.
96. See M. Risoli, John Charles: Gentle Giant (Edinburgh, 2005).
97. Charles was a Welsh international footballer best remembered for spells with Leeds United and Juventus. Rated by many as the greatest all-round footballer ever, he has since been included in the Football League 100 Legends and inducted into the Football Hall of Fame. His never being cautioned or sent off during his entire career came from his philosophy of never kicking or intentionally hurting opposing players. Standing at 6 feet 2 inches, he was nicknamed Il Gigante Buono-the "Gentle Giant."
98. See R. Cavallini, Play Up Corinth (Stroud, 2007).
99. The Corinthian Football Club was a football team founded in London in 1882. The team lives on in memory because it contained immense talent and yet only deigned to play in friendly matches. During the 1880s, the Corinthians received the majority of England caps against Scotland, and for two England matches against Wales in 1894 and 1895. The entire team consisted of members of the club. Forbidding the club to "compete for any challenge cup or prizes of any description," their motto put them at odds with the emerging, professional Football League. Corinthian players felt that introducing wages, fierce competition, and tournaments like the F.A. Cup would negate the joy of playing sport for sports sake. Real Madrid adopted Corinthian's white shirts and Sport Club Corinthians Paulista in Brazil adopted their name. In 1904, Corinthian beat Manchester United 11-3, which remains United's biggest defeat.
100. Thanks and credit must go to Halvard Leira of the Norwegian Institute for International Affairs for this comment.
101. K. Rana, Bilateral Diplomacy (New Delhi, 2002), p. 8.