Evolution of fluid expulsion and concentrated hydrate zones across the southern Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand: An analysis from depth migrated seismic data

Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems

Volumn 13, Issue 8, 2012, Pages

  Plaza Faverola, Andreia ^a   Klaeschen, Dirk ^b   Barnes, Philip ^c   Pecher, Ingo ^a,d   Henrys, Stuart ^a   Mountjoy, Joshu ^c  

^a GNS SCIENCE   (New Zealand)

^b GEOMAR HELMHOLTZ CENTRE FOR OCEAN RESEARCH KIEL   (Germany)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WATER AND ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH   (New Zealand)

^d UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

concentrated hydrates; depth migrated seismic; Hikurangi margin; methane sources; subduction

Indexed keywords

CONCENTRATION (PROCESS); FAULTING; GASES; HYDRATION; METHANE; SEDIMENTOLOGY; SEISMIC RESPONSE; SEISMIC WAVES; STRATIGRAPHY;

CONTINENTAL MARGIN; DEEP FLUIDS; DEPTH MIGRATED SEISMIC; GAS ACCUMULATION; GAS INJECTION; GLOBAL INVENTORIES; HIGH QUALITY; HIKURANGI MARGIN; HYDRATE ACCUMULATIONS; HYDRATE CONCENTRATION; HYDRATE DISTRIBUTION; HYDRATE FORMATION; HYDRATE ZONES; IN-SITU; MULTICHANNEL SEISMIC DATA; NEW ZEALAND; P-WAVE VELOCITY; REGIONAL SCALE; SEISMIC DATAS; SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA; SUBDUCTION; THRUST FAULTS; WATER COLUMNS;

GAS HYDRATES;

CONTINENTAL MARGIN; FLUID EXPULSION; GAS HYDRATE; METHANE; SEISMIC DATA; SEISMIC MIGRATION; SEISMIC REFLECTION; SEISMIC WAVE; SUBDUCTION ZONE; WAVE VELOCITY;

HIKURANGI; NEW ZEALAND; NORTH ISLAND; NORTHLAND; OPOUAWE BANK; PACIFIC OCEAN;

EID: 84865703227     PISSN: None     EISSN: 15252027     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2012GC004228     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Abegg, F., G. Bohrmann, J. Freitag, and W. Kuhs (2007), Fabric of gas hydrate in sediments from Hydrate Ridge: Results from ODP Leg 204 samples, Geo Mar. Lett., 27(2-4), 269-277, doi:10.1007/s00367-007-0080-4. (Pubitemid 46901451)
2. Abrams M. A. (2005), Significance of hydrocarbon seepage relative to petroleum generation and entrapment, Mar. Pet. Geol. 22(4) 457-477 doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2004.08.003. (Pubitemid 40815341)
3. Bangs, N. L. B., G. K. Westbrook, J. W. Ladd, and P. Buhl (1990), Seismic velocities from the Barbados Ridge complex: Indicators of high pore fluid pressures in an accretionary complex, J. Geophys. Res., 95(B6), 8767-8782, doi:10.1029/JB095iB06p08767.
4. Bangs, N. L. B., D. S. Sawyer, and X. Golovchenko (1993), Free gas at the base of the gas hydrate zone in the vicinity of the Chile triple junction, Geology, 21(10), 905, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1993)0212.3.CO;2.
5. Bangs, N. L. B., T. H. Shipley, J. C. Moore, and G. F. Moore (1999), Fluid accumulation and channeling along the northern Barbados Ridge decollement thrust, J. Geophys. Res., 104(B9), 20,399-20,414, doi:10.1029/1999JB900133.
6. Bangs, N. L. B., G. F. Moore, S. P. S. Gulick, E. M. Pangborn, H. J. Tobin, S. Kuramoto, and A. Taira (2009), Broad, weak regions of the Nankai Megathrust and implications for shallow coseismic slip, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 284(1-2), 44-49, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.04.026.
7. Barker, D. H. N., R. Sutherland, S. Henrys, and S. Bannister (2009), Geometry of the Hikurangi subduction thrust and upper plate, North Island, New Zealand, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 10, Q02007, doi:10.1029/2008GC002153.
8. Barnes, P. M. (1994a), Continental extension of the Pacific Plate at the southern termination of the Hikurangi subduction zone: The North Mernoo Fault Zone, offshore New Zealand, Tectonics, 13(4), 735-754, doi:10.1029/94TC00798.
9. Barnes, P. M. (1994b), Pliocene-Pleistocene depositional units on the continental slope off central New Zealand: Control by slope currents and global climate cycles, Mar. Geol., 117(1-4), 155-175, doi:10.1016/0025-3227(94)90012-4. (Pubitemid 24403197)
10. Barnes, P. M., and B. M. Mercier de Lépinay (1997), Rates and mechanics of rapid frontal accretion along the very obliquely convergent southern Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, J. Geophys. Res., 102(B11), 24,931-24,952, doi:10.1029/97JB01384.
11. Barnes, P. M., B. M. de Lépinay, J. Y. Collot, J. Delteil, and J. C. Audru (1998), Strain partitioning in the transition area between oblique subduction and continental collision, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, Tectonics, 17(4), 534-557, doi:10.1029/98TC00974. (Pubitemid 28560847)
12. Barnes, P. M., G. Lamarche, J. Bialas, S. Henrys, I. Pecher, G. L. Netzeband, J. Greinert, J. J. Mountjoy, K. Pedley, and G. Crutchley (2010), Tectonic and geological framework for gas hydrates and cold seeps on the Hikurangi subduction margin, New Zealand, Mar. Geol., 272(1-4), 26-48, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.03.012.
13. Beavan, J., P. Tregoning, M. Bevis, T. Kato, and C. Meertens (2002), Motion and rigidity of the Pacific Plate and implications for plate boundary deformation, J. Geophys. Res., 107(B10), 2261, doi:10.1029/2001JB000282.
14. Begg, J. G., and M. R. Johnston (2000), Geology of the Wellington area, 1:250,000 geological map 10, Inst. of Geol. and Nucl. Sci., Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
15. Berndt, C. (2005), Focused fluid flow in passive continental margins, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A, 363(1837), 2855-2871. (Pubitemid 41807970)
16. Borowski, W. S., C. K. Paull, and W. Ussler (1997), Carbon cycling within the upper methanogenic zone of continental rise sediments; An example from the methane-rich sediments overlying the Blake Ridge gas hydrate deposits, Mar. Chem., 57(3-4), 299-311, doi:10.1016/S0304-4203(97)00019-4. (Pubitemid 27369733)
17. Brie, A., F. Pampuri, A. Marsala, and O. Meazza (1995), Shear sonic interpretation in gas-bearing sands, paper SPE 30595-MS presented at Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Soc. of Pet. Eng., Dallas, Tex.
18. Bruhn, R., W. Parry, and M. Bunds (2000), Tectonics, fluid migration, and fluid pressure in a deformed forearc basin, Cook Inlet, Alaska, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112(4), 550-563, doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2000)1122.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 32828186)
19. Bünz, S., and J. Mienert (2004), Acoustic imaging of gas hydrate and free gas at the Storegga Slide, J. Geophys. Res., 109, B04102, doi:10.1029/2003JB002863. (Pubitemid 38978539)
20. Burwicz, E. B., L. H. Rüpke, and K. Wallmann (2011), Estimation of the global amount of submarine gas hydrates formed via microbial methane formation based on numerical reaction-transport modeling and a novel parameterization of Holocene sedimentation, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 75, 4562-4576, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2011.05.029.
21. Calahorrano, B. A., V. Sallarès, J. Y. Collot, F. Sage, and C. R. Ranero (2008), Nonlinear variations of the physical properties along the southern Ecuador subduction channel: Results from depth-migrated seismic data, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 267(3-4), 453-467, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.11.061.
22. Claypool, G. E., A. V. Milkov, Y. J. Lee, M. E. Torres, W. S. Borowski, and H. Tomaru (2006), Microbial methane generation and gas transport in shallow sediments of an accre-tionary complex, southern Hydrate Ridge (ODP Leg 204), offshore Oregon, USA, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 204, 1-52.
23. Cole, J., and K. Lewis (1981), Evolution of the Taupo-Hikurangi subduction system, Tectonophysics, 72(1-2), 1-21, doi:10.1016/0040-1951(81) 90084-6.
24. Crutchley, G. J., A. R. Gorman, I. A. Pecher, S. Toulmin, and S. A. Henrys (2011), Geological controls on focused fluid flow through the gas hydrate stability zone on the southern Hikurangi Margin of New Zealand, evidenced from multichannel seismic data, Mar. Pet. Geol., 28, 1915-1931, doi:10.1016/j. marpetgeo.2010.12.005
25. Davey, F. J., M. Hampton, J. Childs, M. A. Fisher, K. Lewis, and J. R. Pettinga (1986), Structure of a growing accretionary prism, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, Geology, 14(8), 663-666, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1986)14 2.0.CO;2.
26. Davy, B., K. Hoernle, and R. Werner (2008), Hikurangi Plateau: Crustal structure, rifted formation, and Gondwana subduction history, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 9, Q07004, doi:10.1029/2007GC001855.
27. Domenico, S. N. (1974), Effect of water saturation on seismic reflectivity of sand reservoirs encased in shale, Geophysics, 39(6), 759, doi:10.1190/1.1440464.
28. Domenico, S. N. (1977), Elastic properties of unconsolidated porous sand reservoirs, Geophysics, 42, 1339, doi:10.1190/1.1440797.
29. Duan, Z., N. Møller, and J. H. Weare (1992), An equation of state for the CH4-CO2-H2O system: I. Pure systems from 0 to 1000 C and 0 to 8000 bar, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 56(7), 2605-2617, doi:10.1016/0016-7037(92)90347-L.
30. Erickson, S. N., and R. D. Jarrard (1998), Velocity-porosity relationships for water-saturated siliciclastic sediments, J. Geophys. Res., 103(B12), 30,385-30,406, doi:10.1029/98JB02128. (Pubitemid 128665332)
31. Fiebig, J., A. B. Woodland, W. D'Alessandro, and W. Puettmann (2009), Excess methane in continental hydro-thermal emissions is abiogenic, Geology, 37(6), 495, doi:10.1130/G25598A.1.
32. Field, B. D., et al. (1997), Cretaceous-Cenozoic Geology and Petroleum Systems of the East Coast Region, New Zealand, Inst. Geol. Nucl. Sci. Monogr., vol. 19, Inst. of Geol. and Nucl. Sci., Lower Hutt, New Zealand.
33. Giggenbach, W. F., M. K. Stewart, Y. Sano, R. L. Goguel, and G. L. Lyon (1995), Isotopic and chemical composition of waters and gases from the East Coast accretionary prism, New Zealand; Isotopic and geochemical techniques applied to geothermal investigations, in Proceedings of the Final Research Co-ordination Meeting On the Application of Iso-topic and Geochemical Techniques to Geothermal Exploration in the Middle East, Asia, the Pacific and Africa, IAEA-TECD 788, pp. 208-231, IAEA, Dumaguete, Philippines.
34. Gorman, A. R., W. S. Holbrook, M. J. Hornbach, K. L. Hackwith, D. Lizarralde, and I. Pecher (2002), Migration of methane gas through the hydrate stability zone in a low-flux hydrate province, Geology, 30(4), 327-330, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)0302.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 35003285)
35. Gray, D. (1972), Handbook of American Institute of Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York.
36. Greinert, J., K. B. Lewis, J. Bialas, I. A. Pecher, A. Rowden, D. A. Bowden, M. De Batist, and P. Linke (2010), Methane seepage along the Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand: Overview of studies in 2006 and 2007 and new evidence from visual, bathymetric and hydroacoustic investigations, Mar. Geol., 272(1-4), 6-25, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2010.01.017.
37. Haacke, R. R., G. K. Westbrook, and R. D. Hyndman (2007), Gas hydrate, fluid flow and free gas: Formation of the bottom-simulating reflector, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 261(3-4), 407-420, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.008. (Pubitemid 47371860)
38. Haacke, R. R., G. K. Westbrook, and M. S. Riley (2008), Controls on the formation and stability of gas hydrate-related bottom-simulating reflectors (BSRs): A case study from the west Svalbard continental slope, J. Geophys. Res., 113, B05104, doi:10.1029/2007JB005200.
39. Hayward, N., G. K. Westbrook, and S. Peacock (2003), Seismic velocity, anisotropy, and fluid pressure in the Barbados accretionary wedge from an offset vertical seismic profile with seabed sources, J. Geophys. Res., 108(B11), 2515, doi:10.1029/2001JB001638.
40. Heimann, M. (2010), How stable is the methane cycle?, Science, 327(5970), 1211, doi:10.1126/science.1187270.
41. Helgerud, M., J. Dvorkin, A. Nur, A. Sakai, and T. Collett (1999), Elastic-wave velocity in marine sediments with gas hydrates: Effective medium modeling, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26(13), 2021-2024, doi:10.1029/1999GL900421.
42. Henry, P., S. Lallemant, K. Nakamura, U. Tsunogai, S. Mazzotti, and K. Kobayashi (2002), Surface expression of fluid venting at the toe of the Nankai wedge and implications for flow paths, Mar. Geol., 187(1-2), 119-143, doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(02)00262-1. (Pubitemid 35021842)
43. Henrys, S. A., D. J. Woodward, and I. A. Pecher (2009), Variation of bottom-simulating reflection (BSR) strength in a high-flux methane province, Hikurangi margin, New Zealand, in Natural Gas Hydrates-Energy Resource Potential and Associated Geologic Hazards, edited by T. Collett et al., AAPG Mem., 89, 481-489.
44. Hoffmann, H. J., and T. Reston (1992), Nature of the S reflector beneath the Galicia Banks rifted margin: Preliminary results from prestack depth migration, Geology, 20(12), 1091, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1992)0202.3.CO;2.
45. Holbrook, W. S., H. Hoskins, W. T. Wood, R. A. Stephen, and D. Lizarralde (1996), Methane hydrate and free gas on the blake ridge from vertical seismic profiling, Science, 273(5283), 1840-1843, doi:10.1126/science.273.5283.1840.
46. Hornbach, M. J., D. M. Saffer, and W. S. Holbrook (2004), Critically pressured free-gas reservoirs below gas-hydrate provinces, Nature, 427(6970), 142-144, doi:10.1038/nature02172. (Pubitemid 38094952)
47. Hyndman, R., G. Moore, and K. Moran (1993), Velocity, porosity, and pore-fluid loss from the Nankai subduction zone accretionary prism, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 131, 211-220. (Pubitemid 23394177)
48. Kopf, A. (1999), Fate of sediment during plate convergence at the Mediterranean Ridge accretionary complex: Volume balance of mud extrusion versus subduction and/or accretion, Geology, 27(1), 87, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1999) 0272.3.CO;2.
49. Kroeger, K. F., R. Di Primio, and B. Horsfield (2011), Atmospheric methane from organic carbon mobilization in sedimentary basins-The sleeping giant?, Earth Sci. Rev., 107(3-4), 423, doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2011.04.006.
50. Kvenvolden, K. A. (1988), Methane hydrate-A major reservoir of carbon in the shallow geosphere?, Chem. Geol., 71(1-3), 41-51, doi:10.1016/0009-2541(88) 90104-0.
51. Kvenvolden, K. A. (1993), Gas hydrates-Geological perspective and global change, Rev. Geophys., 31(2), 173-187, doi:10.1029/93RG00268. (Pubitemid 24394383)
52. Kvenvolden, K. A. (1995), A review of the geochemistry of methane in natural gas hydrate, Org. Geochem., 23(11-12), 997-1008, doi:10.1016/0146- 6380(96)00002-2. (Pubitemid 26471919)
53. Lee, M. W. (2004), Elastic velocities of partially gas-saturated unconsolidated sediments, Mar. Pet. Geol., 21(6), 641-650, doi:10.1016/j. marpetgeo.2003.12.004. (Pubitemid 38836418)
54. Lewis, K. B. (2009), Quaternary sedimentation on the Hikur-angi oblique-subduction and transform margin, New Zealand, in Sedimentation in Oblique-Slip Mobile Zones, edited by P. F. Ballance and H. G. Reading, pp. 171-189, Blackwell, Oxford, U. K., doi:10.1002/9781444303735.ch10.
55. Lewis, K. B., and H. M. Pantin (2002), Channel-axis, overbank and drift sediment waves in the southern Hikurangi Trough, New Zealand, Mar. Geol., 192(1-3), 123-151, doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(02)00552-2. (Pubitemid 36080158)
56. Lewis, K. B., and J. R. Pettinga (1993), The emerging, imbricate frontal wedge of the Hikurangi margin, in South Pacific Sedimentary Basins, vol. 2, Sedimentary Basins of the World, pp. 225-250, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
57. Lewis, K. B., J. Y. Collot, and S. E. Lallemand (1998), The dammed Hikurangi Trough: A channel-fed trench blocked by subducting seamounts and their wake avalanches (New Zealand-France GeodyNZ Project), Basin Res., 10(4), 441-468, doi:10.1046/j.1365-2117.1998.00080.x. (Pubitemid 29081604)
58. Liu, X. L., and P. B. Flemings (2007), Dynamic multiphase flow model of hydrate formation in marine sediments, J. Geo-phys. Res., 112, B03101, doi:10.1029/2005JB004227. (Pubitemid 47386325)
59. Lorenson, T. D., T. S. Collett, and R. B. Hunter (2011), Gas geochemistry of the Mount Elbert Gas Hydrate Stratigraphic Test Well, Alaska North Slope: Implications for gas hydrate exploration in the Arctic, Mar. Pet. Geol., 28(2), 343-360, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2010.02.007.
60. Løseth, H., M. Gading, and L. Wensaas (2009), Hydrocarbon leakage interpreted on seismic data, Mar. Pet. Geol., 26(7), 1304-1319, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2008.09.008.
61. Løseth, H., L. Wensaas, B. Arntsen, N. M. Hanken, C. Basire, and K. Graue (2010), 1000 m long gas blow-out pipes, Mar. Pet. Geol., 28, 1047-1060.
62. Lu, H., Y. Seo, J. Lee, I. Moudrakovski, J. A. Ripmeester, N. R. Chapman, R. B. Coffin, G. Gardner, and J. Pohlman (2007), Complex gas hydrate from the Cascadia margin, Nature, 445(7125), 303-306, doi:10.1038/nature05463. (Pubitemid 46122815)
63. MacKay, S., and R. Abma (1992), Imaging and velocity estimation with depth-focusing analysis, Geophys. Wis. Then Tulsa Soc. Explor. Geophys., 57, 1608.
64. Milkov, A. V. (2010), Worldwide distribution and significance of secondary microbial methane formed during petroleum biodegradation in conventional reservoirs, Org. Geochem., 42, 184-207.
65. Minshull, T., and R. White (1989), Sediment compaction and fluid migration in the Makran accretionary prism, J. Geo-phys. Res., 94, 7387-7402, doi:10.1029/JB094iB06p07387.
66. Moore, J. C., A. Klaus, N. L. Bangs, B. Bekins, C. J. Bücker, W. Brückmann, S. N. Erickson, O. Hansen, T. Horton, and P. Ireland (1998), Consolidation patterns during initiation and evolution of a plate-boundary decollement zone: Northern Barbados accretionary prism, Geology, 26(9), 811-814, doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)0262.3.CO;2. (Pubitemid 29109796)
67. Moss, J. L., and J. Cartwright (2010), 3D seismic expression of km-scale fluid escape pipes from offshore Namibia, Basin Res., 22, 481-501, doi:10.1111/j.1365-2117.2010.00461.x
68. Mountjoy, J. J., P. M. Barnes, and J. R. Pettinga (2009), Morphostructure and evolution of submarine canyons across an active margin: Cook Strait sector of the Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand, Mar. Geol., 260(1-4), 45-68, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.01.006.
69. Netzeband, G., A. Krabbenhöft, M. Zillmer, C. J. Petersen, C. Papenberg, and J. Bialas (2010), The structures beneath submarine methane seeps: Seismic evidence from Opouawe Bank, Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand, Mar. Geol., 272(1-4), 59-70, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.07.005.
70. Noguchi, S., N. Shimoda, O. Takano, N. Oikawa, T. Inamori, T. Saeki, and T. Fujii (2011), 3-D internal architecture of methane hydrate-bearing turbidite channels in the eastern Nankai Trough, Japan, Mar. Pet. Geol., 28(10), 1817-1828, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2011.02.004.
71. Parker, S. P. (1989), McGraw-Hill dictionary of scientific and technical terms, Appl. Opt., 28, 1849.
72. Paull, C. K., W. Ussle Iii, and W. S. Borowski (1994), Sources of biogenic methane to form marine gas hydrates in situ production or upward migration?, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 715(1), 392-409, doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632. 1994.tb38852.x. (Pubitemid 24193734)
73. Pecher, I. A., N. Kukowski, C. Huebscher, J. Greinert, and J. Bialas (2001), The link between bottom-simulating reflections and methane flux into the gas hydrate stability zone-new evidence from Lima Basin, Peru Margin, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 185(3-4), 343-354, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(00)00376-9. (Pubitemid 32219445)
74. Pecher, I. A., S. A. Henrys, W. T. Wood, N. Kukowski, G. J. Crutchley, M. Fohrmann, J. Kilner, K. Senger, A. R. Gorman, and R. B. Coffin (2010), Focussed fluid flow on the Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand-Evidence from possible local upwarp-ing of the base of gas hydrate stability, Mar. Geol., 272(1-4), 99-113, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.10.006.
75. Plaza-Faverola, A., S. Bünz, and J. Mienert (2010), Fluid distributions inferred from P wave velocity and reflection seismic amplitude anomalies beneath the Nyegga pockmark field of the mid-Norwegian margin, Mar. Pet. Geol., 27(1), 46-60, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2009.07.007.
76. Plaza-Faverola, A., S. Bünz, and J. Mienert (2011), Repeated fluid expulsion through sub-seabed chimneys offshore Norway in response to glacial cycles, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 305(3-4), 297-308, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.03. 001.
77. Reyners, M., D. Eberhart-Phillips, and S. Bannister (2011), Tracking repeated subduction of the Hikurangi Plateau beneath New Zealand, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 311, 165-171, doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.09.011
78. Roberts, H. H., and R. S. Carney (1997), Evidence of episodic fluid, gas, and sediment venting on the northern Gulf of Mexico continental slope, Econ. Geol., 92(7-8), 863, doi:10.2113/gsecongeo.92.7-8.863.
79. Rogers, K. M., J. D. Collen, J. H. Johnston, and N. E. Elgar (1999), A geochemical appraisal of oil seeps from the East Coast Basin, New Zealand, Org. Geochem., 30, 593-605, doi:10.1016/S0146-6380(99)00036-4. (Pubitemid 29363193)
80. Saffer, D. M., and E. J. Screaton (2003), Fluid flow at the toe of convergent margins: Interpretation of sharp pore-water geochemical gradients, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 213(3-4), 261-270, doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(03)00343-1. (Pubitemid 37061270)
81. Saffer, D. M., and H. J. Tobin (2011), Hydrogeology and mechanics of subduction zone forearcs: Fluid flow and pore pressure, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 39, 157-186, doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-040610-133408.
82. Schoell, M. (1988), Multiple origins of methane in the earth, Chem. Geol., 71(1-3), 1-10, doi:10.1016/0009-2541(88) 90101-5.
83. Schwalenberg, K., M. Haeckel, J. Poort, and M. Jegen (2010), Evaluation of gas hydrate deposits in an active seep area using marine controlled source electromagnetics: Results from Opouawe Bank, Hikurangi Margin, New Zealand, Mar. Geol., 272(1-4), 79-88, doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2009.07.006.
84. Screaton, E., D. Saffer, P. Henry, and S. Hunze (2002), Porosity loss within the underthrust sediments of the Nankai accretionary complex: Implications for overpressures, Geology, 30(1), 19-22, doi:10.1130/0091- 7613(2002) 0302.0.CO;2. (Pubitemid 35022344)
85. Serie, C., M. Huuse, and N. H. Schødt (2012), Gas hydrate pin-goes: Deep seafloor evidence of focused fluid flow on continental margins, Geology, 40(3), 207, doi:10.1130/G32690.1.
86. Sloan, E. D., Jr. (1998), Physical/chemical properties of gas hydrates and application to world margin stability and climatic change, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 137(1), 31, doi:10.1144/GSL. SP.1998.137.01.03.
87. SO-214 Scientific Party (2011), FS SONNE Fahrtbericht/Cruise Report SO214 NEMESYS: 09.03.-05.04. 2011, Wellington-Wellington, 06.-22.04. 2011 Wellington-Auckland, IFM-GEOMAR Rep. 47, IFM-GEOMAR, Kiel, Germany.
88. Taylor, M., W. Dillon, and I. Pecher (2000), Trapping and migration of methane associated with the gas hydrate stability zone at the Blake Ridge Diapir: new insights from seismic data, Mar. Geol., 164(1-2), 79-89, doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(99) 00128-0. (Pubitemid 30172012)
89. Tobin, H. J., and D. M. Saffer (2009), Elevated fluid pressure and extreme mechanical weakness of a plate boundary thrust, Nankai Trough subduction zone, Geology, 37(8), 679-682, doi:10.1130/G25752A.1.
90. Uruski, C. I. (2010), New Zealand's deepwater frontier, Mar. Pet. Geol., 27(9), 2005-2026, doi:10.1016/j.marpetgeo. 2010.05.010.
91. Vanneste, M., M. De Batist, A. Golmshtok, A. Kremlev, and W. Versteeg (2001), Multi-frequency seismic study of gas hydrate-bearing sediments in Lake Baikal, Siberia, Mar. Geol., 172(1-2), 1-21, doi:10.1016/S0025-3227(00)00117-1. (Pubitemid 32143364)
92. Vannucchi, P., F. Sage, J. P. Morgan, F. Remitti, and J. Y. Collot (2012), Toward a dynamic concept of the subduc-tion channel at erosive convergent margins with implications for interplate material transfer, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 13, Q02003, doi:10.1029/2011GC003846.
93. Wallace, L. M., P. Barnes, J. Beavan, R. Van Dissen, N. Litchfield, J. Mountjoy, R. Langridge, G. Lamarche, and N. Pondard (2012), The kinematics of a transition from subduction to strike-slip: An example from the central New Zealand plate boundary, J. Geophys. Res., 117, B02405, doi:10.1029/2011JB008640.
94. Wallmann, K., G. Aloisi, M. Haeckel, A. Obzhirov, G. Pavlova, and P. Tishchenko (2006), Kinetics of organic matter degradation, microbial methane generation, and gas hydrate formation in anoxic marine sediments, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 70(15), 3905-3927, doi:10.1016/j.gca.2006.06.003. (Pubitemid 44111664)
95. Westbrook, G. (1991), Geophysical evidence for the role of fluids in accretionary wedge tectonics, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. A, 335(1638), 227-242, doi:10.1098/rsta.1991.0044.
96. Wiese, K., and K. A. Kvenvolden (1993), Introduction to microbial and thermal methane, U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 1570, 13-20.
97. Wood, R., and B. Davy (1994), The Hikurangi Plateau, Mar. Geol., 118(1-2), 153-173, doi:10.1016/0025-3227(94) 90118-X. (Pubitemid 24426943)