Evaluation and quantification of spasticity: A review of the clinical, biomechanical and neurophysiological methods;Valoración y cuantifcación de la espasticidad: Revisión de los métodos clínicos, biomecánicos y neurofsiológicos

Revista de Neurologia

Volumn 55, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 217-226

  Gómez Soriano, Julio ^a,b   Cano de la Cuerda, Roberto ^c   Muñoz Hellín, Elena ^c   Ortiz Gutiérrez, Rosa ^c   Taylor, Julian S ^a  

^a HOSPITAL NACIONAL DE PARAPLÉJICOS   (Spain)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CASTILLA LA MANCHA   (Spain)

^c UNIVERSIDAD REY JUAN CARLOS   (Spain)

Author keywords

Clinical scales; Electromyography; Hyperreflexia; Hypertonia; Modified ashworth scale; Spasticity

Indexed keywords

BIOMECHANICS; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT TOOL; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; HUMAN; MUSCLE HYPERTONIA; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; RATING SCALE; REVIEW; SPASTICITY; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TRAINING; DYNAMOMETER; METHODOLOGY; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; MYOTATIC REFLEX; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; PARESIS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SPINAL CORD INJURY;

BIOMECHANICS; HUMANS; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; MUSCLE HYPERTONIA; MUSCLE SPASTICITY; MUSCLE STRENGTH DYNAMOMETER; NEUROLOGIC EXAMINATION; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; PARESIS; REFLEX, STRETCH; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SPINAL CORD INJURIES;

EID: 84865239129     PISSN: 02100010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.33588/rn.5504.2012229     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. Rizzo MA, Hadjimichael OC, Preiningerova J, Vollmer TL. Prevalence and treatment of spasticity reported by multiple sclerosis patients. Mult Scler 2004; 10: 589-595.
2. Sommerfeld DK, Eek EU, Svensson AK, Holmqvist LW, Von Arbin MH. Spasticity after stroke: its occurrence and association with motor impairments and activity limitations. Stroke 2004; 35: 134-139.
3. Maynard FM, Karunas RS, Waring WP 3rd. Epidemiology of spasticity following traumatic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1990; 71: 566-569.
4. Lance JW. Te control of muscle tone, reflexes, and movement: Robert Wartenberg Lecture. Neurology 1980; 30: 1303-1313.
5. Nielsen JB, Crone C, Hultborn H. The spinal pathophysiology of spasticity-from a basic science point of view. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2007; 189: 171-180.
6. Sheean G. Te pathophysiology of spasticity. Eur J Neurol 2002; 9 (Suppl 1): S3-S9.
7. Burridge JH, Wood DE, Hermens HJ, Voerman GE, Johnson GR, Van Wijck F, et al. Teoretical and methodological considerations in the measurement of spasticity. Disabil Rehabil 2005; 27: 69-80.
8. Adams MM, Ginis KA, Hicks AL. Te spinal cord injury spasticity evaluation tool: development and evaluation. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007; 88: 1185-1192.
9. Biering-Sorensen F, Nielsen JB, Klinge K. Spasticity-assessment: a review. Spinal Cord 2006; 44: 708-722.
10. Priebe MM, Sherwood AM, Tornby JI, Kharas NF, Markowski J. Clinical assessment of spasticity in spinal cord injury: a multidimensional problem. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996; 77: 713-716.
11. Milanov I. Clinical and neurophysiological correlations of spasticity. Funct Neurol 1999; 14: 193-201.
12. Ashworth B. Preliminary trial of carisoprodol in multiple sclerosis. Practitioner 1964; 192: 540-542.
13. Gómez-Soriano J, Taylor J. Spasticity after a spinal cord injury: review of the pathophysiology mechanisms, diagnostic techniques and current physiotherapy treatments. Fisioterapia 2010; 32: 89-98.
14. Fleuren JF, Voerman GE, Erren-Wolters CV, Snoek GJ, Rietman JS, Hermens HJ, et al. Stop using the Ashworth Scale for the assessment of spasticity. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2010; 81: 46-52.
15. Bohannon RW, Smith MB. Interrater reliability of a modified Ashworth scale of muscle spasticity. Phys Ter 1987; 67: 206-207.
16. Ansari NN, Naghdi S, Arab TK, Jalaie S. The interrater and intrarater reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale in the assessment of muscle spasticity: limb and muscle group effect. Neurorehabilitation 2008; 23: 231-237.
17. Sloan RL, Sinclair E, Tompson J, Taylor S, Pentland B. Inter-rater reliability of the modified Ashworth Scale for spasticity in hemiplegic patients. Int J Rehabil Res 1992; 15: 158-161.
18. Platz T, Eickhof C, Nuyens G, Vuadens P. Clinical scales for the assessment of spasticity, associated phenomena, and function: a systematic review of the literature. Disabil Rehabil 2005; 27: 7-18.
19. Blackburn M, Van Vliet P, Mockett SP. Reliability of measurements obtained with the modified Ashworth scale in the lower extremities of people with stroke. Phys Ter 2002; 82: 25-34.
20. Haas BM, Bergstrom E, Jamous A, Bennie A. Te inter rater reliability of the original and of the modified Ashworth scale for the assessment of spasticity in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1996; 34: 560-564.
21. Craven BC, Morris AR. Modified Ashworth scale reliability for measurement of lower extremity spasticity among patients with SCI. Spinal Cord 2010; 48: 207-213.
22. Ghotbi N, Nakhostin-Ansari N, Naghdi S, Hasson S. Measurement of lower-limb muscle spasticity: intrarater reliability of modified Ashworth Scale. J Rehabil Res Dev 2011; 48: 83-88.
23. Pandyan AD, Johnson GR, Price CI, Curless RH, Barnes MP, Rodgers H. A review of the properties and limitations of the Ashworth and modifed Ashworth Scales as measures of spasticity. Clin Rehabil 1999; 13: 373-383.
24. Tardieu G, Shentoub S, Delarue R. Research on a technic for measurement of spasticity. Rev Neurol (Paris) 1954; 91: 143-144.
25. Boyd NR, Graham HK. Objective measurement of clinical fndings in the use of botulinum toxin type A for the management of children with cerebral palsy. Eur J Neurol 1999; 6: 223-235.
26. Patrick E, Ada L. The Tardieu Scale diferentiates contracture from spasticity whereas the Ashworth Scale is confounded by it. Clin Rehabil 2006; 20: 173-182.
27. Haugh AB, Pandyan AD, Johnson GR. A systematic review of the Tardieu Scale for the measurement of spasticity. Disabil Rehabil 2006; 28: 899-907.
28. Gracies JM, Burke K, Clegg NJ, Browne R, Rushing C, Fehlings D, et al. Reliability of the Tardieu Scale for assessing spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2010; 91: 421-428.
29. Waninge A, Rook RA, Dijkhuizen A, Gielen E, Van der Schans C P. Feasibility, test-retest reliability, and interrater reliability of the Modified Ashworth Scale and Modified Tardieu Scale in persons with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities. Res Dev Disabil 2011; 32: 613-620.
30. Merello M. Fisiopatología, clínica y tratamiento de la espasticidad. Archivos de Neurología, Neurocirugía y Neuropsiquatría 2008; 7: 29-62.
31. Snow BJ, Tsui JK, Bhatt MH, Varelas M, Hashimoto SA, Calne DB. Treatment of spasticity with botulinum toxin: a double-blind study. Ann Neurol 1990; 28: 512-515.
32. Love S. Better description of spastic cerebral palsy for reliable classification. Dev Med Child Neurol 2009; 49 (S109): S24-S25.
33. Penn RD, Savoy SM, Corcos D, Latash M, Gottlieb G, Parke B, et al. Intrathecal baclofen for severe spinal spasticity. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 1517-1521.
34. Hallett M. NINDS myotatic reflex scale. Neurology 1993; 43: 2723.
35. Litvan I, Mangone CA, Werden W, Bueri JA, Estol CJ, Garcea DO, et al. Reliability of the NINDS Myotatic Reflex Scale. Neurology 1996; 47: 969-972.
36. Manschot S, Van Passel L, Buskens E, Algra A, Van Gijn J. Mayo and NINDS scales for assessment of tendon reflexes: between observer agreement and implications for communication. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1998; 64: 253-255.
37. Pavan K, Marangoni BE, Shimizu WA, Mattos SE, Ferrari PP, Martins SR, et al. Validation of the Santa Casa evaluation of spasticity scale. Arq Neuropsiquiatr 2010; 68: 56-61.
38. Cook KF, Teal CR, Engebretson JC, Hart KA, Mahoney JS, Robinson-Whelen S, et al. Development and validation of Patient Reported Impact of Spasticity Measure (PRISM). J Rehabil Res Dev 2007; 44: 363-371.
39. Gregson JM, Leathley M, Moore A P, Sharma AK, Smith TL, Watkins CL. Reliability of the Tone Assessment Scale and the modified Ashworth scale as clinical tools for assessing poststroke spasticity. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 1013-1016.
40. Hobart JC, Riazi A, Tompson AJ, Styles IM, Ingram W, Vickery PJ, et al. Getting the measure of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: the Multiple Sclerosis Spasticity Scale (MSSS-88). Brain 2006; 129: 224-234.
41. Benz EN, Hornby TG, Bode RK, Scheidt RA, Schmit BD. A physiologically based clinical measure for spastic reflexes in spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86: 52-59.
42. Cano-de-la-Cuerda R, Vela L, Miangolarra-Page JC, Macías-Macías Y, Muñoz-Hellín E. Valoración cuantitativa de la rigidez axial, estado funcional y calidad de vida relacionada con la salud en pacientes con enfermedad de Parkinson. Rev Neurol 2010; 51: 193-200.
43. Cano-de-la-Cuerda R, Vela-Desojo L, Miangolarra-Page JC, Macías-Macías Y, Muñoz-Hellín E. Axial rigidity and quality of life in patients with Parkinson's disease: a preliminary study. Qual Life Res 2011; 20: 817-823.
44. Boiteau M, Malouin F, Richards CL. Use of a hand-held dynamometer and a Kin-Com dynamometer for evaluating spastic hypertonia in children: a reliability study. Phys Ter 1995; 75: 796-802.
45. Kakebeeke TH, Lechner H, Baumberger M, Denoth J, Michel D, Knecht H. Te importance of posture on the isokinetic assessment of spasticity. Spinal Cord 2002; 40: 236-243.
46. Lamontagne A, Malouin F, Richards CL, Dumas F. Evaluation of reflex- and nonreflex-induced muscle resistance to stretch in adults with spinal cord injury using hand-held and isokinetic dynamometry. Phys Ter 1998; 78: 964-975.
47. Rabita G, Dupont L, Tevenon A, Lensel-Corbeil G, Perot C, Vanvelcenaher J. Quantitative assessment of the velocity-dependent increase in resistance to passive stretch in spastic plantarfexors. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2005; 20: 745-753.
48. Akman MN, Bengi R, Karatas M, Kilinc S, Sozay S, Ozker R. Assessment of spasticity using isokinetic dynamometry in patients with spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1999; 37: 638-643.
49. Starsky AJ, Sangani SG, McGuire JR, Logan B, Schmit BD. Reliability of biomechanical spasticity measurements at the elbow of people poststroke. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86: 1648-1654.
50. Franzoi AC, Castro C, Cardone C. Isokinetic assessment of spasticity in subjects with traumatic spinal cord injury (ASIA A). Spinal Cord 1999; 37: 416-420.
51. Lee HM, Huang YZ, Chen JJ, Hwang IS. Quantitative analysis of the velocity related pathophysiology of spasticity and rigidity in the elbow flexors. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2002; 72: 621-629.
52. Teravainen H, Tsui JK, Mak E, Calne DB. Optimal indices for testing parkinsonian rigidity. Can J Neurol Sci 1989; 16: 180-183.
53. Pandyan AD, Price CI, Rodgers H, Barnes MP, Johnson GR. Biomechanical examination of a commonly used measure of spasticity. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2001; 16: 859-865.
54. Bénard MR, Jaspers RT, Huijing PA, Becher JG, Harlaar J. Reproducibility of hand-held ankle dynamometry to measure altered ankle moment-angle characteristics in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2010; 25: 802-808.
55. Wartenberg R. Pendulousness of the legs as a diagnostic test. Neurology 1951; 1: 18-24.
56. Bohannon RW. Variability and reliability of the pendulum test for spasticity using a Cybex II isokinetic dynamometer. Phys Ter 1987; 67: 659-661.
57. Bajd T, Vodovnik L. Pendulum testing of spasticity. J Biomed Eng 1984; 6: 9-16.
58. Le Cavorzin P, Hernot X, Bartier O, Carrault G, Chagneau F, Gallien P, et al. Evaluation of pendulum testing of spasticity. Ann Readapt Med Phys 2002;45: 510-516.
59. Bohannon RW, Harrison S, Kinsella-Shaw J. Reliability and validity of pendulum test measures of spasticity obtained with the Polhemus tracking system from patients with chronic stroke. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2009; 6: 30.
60. Nance PW, Bugaresti J, Shellenberger K, Sheremata W, Martínez-Arizala A. Efficacy and safety of tizanidine in the treatment of spasticity in patients with spinal cord injury. North American Tizanidine Study Group. Neurology 1994; 44 (Suppl 9): S44-S51.
61. Nordmark E, Anderson G. Wartenberg pendulum test: objective quantification of muscle tone in children with spastic diplegia undergoing selective dorsal rhizotomy. Dev Med Child Neurol 2002; 44: 26-33.
62. Winters TF Jr, Gage JR, Hicks R. Gait patterns in spastic hemiplegia in children and young adults. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1987; 69: 437-441.
63. Levin MF, Hui-Chan C. Are H and stretch reflexes in hemiparesis reproducible and correlated with spasticity? J Neurol 1993; 240: 63-71.
64. Voerman GE, Gregoric M, Hermens HJ. Neurophysiological methods for the assessment of spasticity: the Hofmann reflex, the tendon reflex, and the stretch reflex. Disabil Rehabil 2005; 27: 33-68.
65. Little JW, Halar EM. H-reflex changes following spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1985; 66: 19-22.
66. Nielsen J, Crone C, Hultborn H. H-reflexes are smaller in dancers from Te Royal Danish Ballet than in well-trained athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1993; 66: 116-121.
67. Milanov IG. A comparison of methods to assess the excitability of lower motoneurones. Can J Neurol Sci 1992; 19: 64-68.
68. Schindler-Ivens SM, Shields RK. Soleus H-reflex recruitment is not altered in persons with chronic spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2004; 85: 840-847.
69. Katz RT, Rymer WZ. Spastic hypertonia: mechanisms and measurement. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1989; 70: 144-155.
70. Fisher MA. F/M ratios in polyneuropathy and spastic hyperreflexia. Muscle Nerve 1988; 11: 217-222.
71. Milanov I. A comparative study of methods for estimation of presynaptic inhibition. J Neurol 1992; 239: 287-292.
72. Zhang LQ, Wang G, Nishida T, Xu D, Sliwa JA, Rymer WZ. Hyperactive tendon reflexes in spastic multiple sclerosis: measures and mechanisms of action. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81: 901-909.
73. Powers RK, Marder-Meyer J, Rymer WZ. Quantitative relations between hypertonia and stretch reflex threshold in spastic hemiparesis. Ann Neurol 1988; 23: 115-124.
74. Toft E, Sinkjaer T, Andreassen S, Hansen HJ. Stretch responses to ankle rotation in multiple sclerosis patients with spasticity. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1993; 89: 311-318.
75. Berardelli A, Sabra AF, Hallett M, Berenberg W, Simon SR. Stretch reflexes of triceps surae in patients with upper motor neuron syndromes. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1983; 46: 54-60.
76. Lin FM, Sabbahi M. Correlation of spasticity with hyperactive stretch reflexes and motor dysfunction in hemiplegia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 526-530.
77. Dimitrijevic MR, Nathan P W. Changes in the flexion reflex with repetitive cutaneous stimulation in spinal man. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1969; 27: 721-722.
78. Gómez-Soriano J, Bravo-Esteban E, Ávila-Martín G, Galán-Arriero I, Taylor J. Modulación de refejos cutáneos locales después de lesión medular: Implicaciones para la neuro-rrehabilitación. Trauma Fund Mapfre 2011; 22: 256-264.
79. Hornby TG, Rymer WZ, Benz EN, Schmit BD. Windup of flexion reflexes in chronic human spinal cord injury: a marker for neuronal plateau potentials? J Neurophysiol 2003; 89: 416-426.
80. Gómez-Soriano J, Castellote JM, Pérez-Rizo E, Esclarín A, Taylor JS. Voluntary ankle flexor activity and adaptive coactivation gain is decreased by spasticity during subacute spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2010; 224: 507-516.