Diet, obesity, and prostate health: Are we missing the link

Journal of Andrology

Volumn 33, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 763-776

  Tewari, Reshu ^a   Rajender, Singh ^b   Natu, Shankar M ^a   Dalela, Divakar ^a   Goel, Apul ^a   Goel, Madhu M ^a   Tandon, Pushpa ^a  

^a KING GEORGE'S MEDICAL UNIVERSITY   (India)

^b CENTRAL DRUG RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (India)

Author keywords

Benign prostatic hyperplasia; Prostate cancer

Indexed keywords

ADIPONECTIN; ANDROSTANOLONE; ESTROGEN; HIGH DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 6; LEPTIN; RESISTIN; SEX HORMONE BINDING GLOBULIN; TESTOSTERONE; TRIACYLGLYCEROL; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; ADIPOCYTOKINE; SEX HORMONE;

ABDOMINAL OBESITY; BODY MASS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HUMAN; HYPERINSULINEMIA; LOWER URINARY TRACT SYMPTOM; OBESITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE CARCINOMA; PROSTATE DISEASE; PROSTATE HYPERTROPHY; PROSTATE VOLUME; REVIEW; WAIST HIP RATIO; ADIPOSE TISSUE; ANIMAL; BLOOD; ENERGY METABOLISM; HEALTH STATUS; LIFESTYLE; MALE; METABOLISM; PATHOLOGY; PROSTATE; PROSTATE TUMOR; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION;

ADIPOKINES; ADIPOSE TISSUE; ANIMALS; DIET; ENERGY METABOLISM; GONADAL STEROID HORMONES; HEALTH STATUS; HUMANS; LIFE STYLE; MALE; OBESITY; PROSTATE; PROSTATIC DISEASES; PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA; PROSTATIC NEOPLASMS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR;

EID: 84864388351     PISSN: 01963635     EISSN: 19394640     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2164/jandrol.111.015578     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Algotar AM, Stratton SP, Ranger-Moore J, Stratton MS, Hsu CH, Ahmann FR, Nagle RB, Thompson PA. Association of obesity and smoking with PSA and PSA velocity in men with prostate cancer. Am J Mens Health. 2011;5:272-278.
2. Amling CL, Riffenburgh RH, Sun L, Moul JW, Lance RS, Kusuda L, Sexton WJ, Soderdahl DW, Donahue TF, Foley JP, Chung AK, McLeod DG. Pathologic variables and recurrence rates as related to obesity and race in men with prostate cancer undergoing radical prostatectomy. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:439-445.
3. Andersson SO, Adami HO, Bergstrom R, Wide L. Serum pituitary and sex hormones level in etiology of prostate cancer-a population bases case control study. Br J Cancer. 1993;68:97-102.
4. Arita Y, Kihara S, Ouchi N, Takahashi M, Maeda K, Miyagawa J, Hotta K, Shimomura I, Nakamura T, Miyaoka K, Kuriyama H, Nishida M, Yamashita S, Okubo K, Matsubara K, Muraguchi M, Ohmoto Y, Funahashi T, Matsuzawa Y. Paradoxical decrease of an adipose-specific protein, adiponectin, in obesity. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1999;257:79-83.
5. Barrett-Connor E, Garland C, McPhillips JB, Khaw KT, Wingard DL. A prospective population-based study of androstenedione, estrogens, and prostatic cancer. Cancer Res. 1990;50:169-173.
6. Bassett WW, Cooperberg MR, Sadetsky N, Silva S, DuChane J, Pasta DJ, Chan JM, Anast JW, Carroll PR, Kane CJ. Impact of obesity on prostate cancer recurrence after radical prostatectomy: data from CaPSURE. Urology. 2005;66:1060-1065.
7. Beebe-Dimmer JL, Dunn RL, Sarma AV, Montie JE, Cooney KA. Features of the metabolic syndrome and prostate cancer in African-American men. Cancer. 2007;109:875-881.
8. Burke JP, Rhodes T, Jacobson DJ, McGree ME, Roberts RO, Girman CJ, Lieber MM, Jacobsen SJ. Association of anthropometric measures with the presence and progression of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Am J Epidemiol. 2006;164:41-46.
9. Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1625-1638.
10. Calton BA, Chang SC, Wright ME, Kipnis V, Lawson K, Thompson FE, Subar AF, Mouw T, Campbell DS, Hurwitz P, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, Leitzmann MF. History of diabetes mellitus and subsequent prostate cancer risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study. Cancer Causes Control. 2007;18:493-503.
11. Chute CG, Panser LA, Girman CJ, Oesterling JE, Guess HA, Jacobsen SJ, Lieber MM. The prevalence of prostatism: a population-based survey of urinary symptoms. J Urol. 1993;150: 85-89.
12. Clarke NW, Brown MD. The influence of lipid metabolism on prostate cancer development and progression: is it time for a closer look Euro Urol. 2007;52:3-4.
13. Dahle SE, Chokkalingam AP, Gao YT, Deng J, Stanczyk FZ, Hsing AW. Body size and serum levels of insulin and leptin in relation to the risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Urol. 2002;168:599-604.
14. Dandona P, Weinstock R, Thusu K, Abdel-Rahman E, Aljada A, Wadden T. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha in sera of obese patients: fall with weight loss. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:2907-2910.
15. Davila JA, Morgan RO, Sahib Y, Macglynn KA, Eiserag HB. Diabetes increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States: a population base case control study. Gut. 2005;54:533-539.
16. de la Taille A, Katz A, Vacherot F, Saint F, Salomon L, Cicco A, Abbou CC, Chopin DK. Cancer of the prostate: influence of nutritional factors. General nutritional factors [in French]. Presse Med. 2001;24:554-556.
17. de Santana IA, Moura GS, Vieira NF, Cipolotti R. Metabolic syndrome in patients with prostate cancer. Sao Paulo Med J. 2008;126:274-278.
18. Dobbelsteyn CJ, Joffres MR, MacLean DR, Flowerdew G. A comparative evaluation of waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and body mass index as indicators of cardiovascular risk factors. The Canadian Heart Health Surveys. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001;25:652-661.
19. Dubey D. The routine use of prostate-specific antigen for early detection of cancer prostate in India: Is it justified Indian J Urol. 2009;25:177-184.
20. Fowke JH, Motley SS, Cookson MS, Concepcion R, Chang SS, Wills ML, Smith JA Jr. The association between body size, prostate volume and prostate-specific antigen. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2007;10:137-142.
21. Freedland SJ. Obesity and prostate cancer: a growing problem. Clin Cancer Res. 2005;11:6763-6766.
22. Freedland SJ, Aronson WJ, Kane CJ, Presti JC Jr, Amling CL, Elashoff D, Terris MK. Impact of obesity on biochemical control after radical prostatectomy for clinically localized prostate cancer: a report by the Shared Equal Access Regional Cancer Hospital database study group. J Clin Oncol. 2004;22:446-453.
23. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ. Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996;88:1118-1126.
24. Garfinkel L. Overweight and mortality. Cancer. 1986;58:1826-1829.
25. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Chute CG, Kawachi I, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Obesity and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Am J Epidemiol. 1994;140:989-1002.
26. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Colditz GA, Stampfer MJ, Ascherio A, Chute CC, Willett WC. A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1993;85:1571-1579.
27. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Liu Y, Leitzmann M, Wu K, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Body mass index and risk of prostate cancer in U.S. health professionals. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;16:1240-1244.
28. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett CW. Height, body weight, and risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1997;6:557-563.
29. Giovannucci E, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control. 1998;9:3-9.
30. Giri D, Ozen M, Ittmann M. Interleukin-6 is an autocrine growth factor in human prostate cancer. Am J Pathol. 2001;159:2159-2165.
31. Goktas S, Yilmaz MI, Caglar K, Sonmez A, Kilic S, Bedir S. Prostate cancer and adiponectin. Urology. 2005;65:1168-1172.
32. Gong Z, Agalliu I, Lin DW, Stanford JL, Kristal AR. Obesity is associated with increased risks of prostate cancer metastasis and death after initial cancer diagnosis in middle-aged men. Cancer. 2007;109:1192-1202.
33. Grant WB. A multicountry ecologic study of risk and risk reduction factors for prostate cancer mortality. Eur Urol. 2004;45:271-279.
34. Grubb RL3rd, Black A, Izmirlian G, Hickey TP, Pinsky PF, Mabie JE, Riley TL, Ragard LR, Prorok PC, Berg CD, Crawford ED, Church TR, Andriole GL Jr, PLCO Project Team, Serum prostatespecific antigen hemodilution among obese men undergoing screening in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18: 748-751.
35. Gupta A, Gupta S, Pavuk M, Roehrborn CG. Anthropometric and metabolic factors and risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia: a prospective cohort study of Air Force veterans. Urology. 2006;68:1198-1205.
36. Hammarsten J, Damber JE, Karlsson M, Knutson T, Ljunggren O, Ohlsson C, Peeker R, Smith U, Mellström D. Insulin and free oestradiol are independent risk factors for benign prostatic hyperplasia. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2009;12:160-165.
37. Hammarsten J, Hö gstedt B. Clinical, haemodynamic, anthropometric, metabolic and insulin profile of men with high-stage and highgrade clinical prostate cancer. Blood Press. 2004;13:47-55.
38. Hammarsten J, Hö gstedt B, Holthuis N, Mellström D. Components of the metabolic syndrome-risk factors for the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 1998;3: 157-162.
39. Han HJ, Chang IH, Ahn SH, Kwon OJ, Bang SH, Choi NY, Park SW, Myung SC, Kim HW. Association between serum prostate-specific antigen level, liver function tests and lipid profile in healthy men. BJU Int. 2008;9:1097-1101.
40. Heber D. Prostate enlargement: the canary in the coal mine Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75:605-606.
41. Hirayama T. Epidemiology of prostate cancer with special reference to the role of diet. Natl Cancer Inst Monogr. 1979;53:149-155.
42. Hoda MR, Hamza A, Fischer K, Wagner S, Schneider J, Heynemann H, Fornara P. Obesity as a risk factor for prostate cancer: role for adipocytokines and involvement of tyrosine kinase pathway [in German]. Aktuelle Urol. 2010;41:178-183.
43. Hong SK, Lee ST, Kim SS, Min KE, Byun SS, Cho SY, Choe G, Lee SE. Significance of preoperative HbA1c level in patients with diabetes mellitus and clinically localized prostate cancer. Prostate. 2009;69:820-826.
44. Housa D, Housova J, Vernerova Z, Haluzik M. Adipocytokines and cancer. Physiol Res. 2006;55:233-244.
45. Hsing AW, Chua S Jr, Gao YT, Gentzschein E, Chang L, Deng J, Stanczyk FZ. Prostate cancer risk and serum levels of insulin and leptin: a population-based study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001;93: 783-789.
46. Hsing AW, Comstock GW. Serological precursors of cancer: serum hormones and risk of subsequent prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1993;2:27-32.
47. Hsing AW, Deng J, Sesterhenn IA, Mostofi FK, Stanczyk FZ, Benichou J, Xie T, Gao YT. Body size and prostate cancer: a population-based case-control study in China. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2000a;9:1335-1341.
48. Hsing AW, Gao YT, Chua S Jr, Deng J, Stanczyk FZ. Insulin resistance and prostate cancer risk. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2003;95: 67-71.
49. Hsing AW, McLaughlin JK, Schuman LM, Bjelke E, Gridley G, Wacholder S, Chien HT, Blot WJ. Diet, tobacco use, and fatal prostate cancer: results from the Lutheran Brotherhood Cohort Study. Cancer Res. 1990;50:6836-6840.
50. Hsing AW, Sakoda LC, Chua S Jr. Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and prostate cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86:s843-857.
51. Hsing AW, Tsao L, Devesa SS. International trends and patterns of prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Int J Cancer. 2000b;85:60-67.
52. Hursting SD, Thornquist M, Henderson MM. Types of dietary fat and the incidence of cancer at five sites. Prev Med. 1990;19:242-253.
53. James PT. Obesity: the worldwide epidemic. Clin Dermatol. 2004;22:276-280.
54. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, Murray T, Xu J, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2007. CA Cancer J Clin. 2007;57:43-66.
55. Jin B, Turner L, Zhou Z, Zhou EL, Handelsman DJ. Ethnicity and migration as determinants of human prostate size. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:3613-3619.
56. Joseph MA, Wei JT, Harlow SD, Cooney KA, Dunn RL, Jaffe CA, Montie JE, Schottenfeld D. Relationship of serum sex-steroid hormones and prostate volume in African American men. Prostate. 2002;4:322-329.
57. Kaaks R, Stattin P. Obesity, endogenous hormone metabolism, and prostate cancer risk: a conundrum of "highs"and "lows."Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2010;3:259-262.
58. Kershaw EE, Flier JS. Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:2548-2556.
59. Kim HS, Presti JC Jr, Aronson WJ, Terris MK, Kane CJ, Amling CL, Freedland SJ. Glycemic control and prostate cancer progression: results from the SEARCH database. Prostate. 2010;14:1540-1546.
60. Kim YJ, Cho YJ, Oh JE, Jeon YS, Lee SC, Kim WJ. The association between metabolic syndrome and prostate-specific antigen levels. Int J Urol. 2008;10:905-909.
61. Kristal AR, Arnold KB, Schenk JM, Neuhouser ML, Weiss N, Goodman P, Antvelink CM, Penson DF, Thompson IM. Race/ ethnicity, obesity, health related behaviors and the risk of symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial. J Urol. 2007;177:1395-1400.
62. Kristal AR, Gong Z, Zeliadt S. Associations of obesity with prostate cancer risk, outcomes, and trends Boston, MA: Fifth AACR International Conference on Frontiers in Cancer Prevention Research; Nov 12-15, 2006.
63. Lagiou P, Signorello LB, Trichopoulos D, Tzonou A, Trichopoulou A, Mantzoros CS. Leptin in relation to prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. Int J Cancer. 1998;76:25-28.
64. Larsson SC, Orsini N, Wolk A. Diabetes mellitus and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005;97:1679-1687.
65. Laukkanen JA, Laaksonen DE, Niskanen L, Pukkala E, Hakkarainen A, Salonen JT. Metabolic syndrome and the risk of prostate cancer in Finnish men: a population-based study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2004;13:1646-1650.
66. Lekili M, Muezzinoglu T, Uyanik BS, Buyuksu C. Serum lipid levels in benign prostatic hyperplasia. World J Urol. 2006;24:210-213.
67. Le Marchand L, Kolonel LN, Wilkens LR, Myers BC, Hirohata T. Animal fat consumption and prostate cancer: a prospective study in Hawaii. Epidemiology. 1994;5:276-282.
68. Liu CC, Wang CJ, Huang SP, Chou YH, Wu WJ, Huang CH. Relationships between American Urological Association symptom index, prostate volume, and disease-specific quality of life question in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2004;20:273-278.
69. López Fontana CM, Maselli ME, Pérez Elizalde RF, Di Milta Mónaco NA, Uvilla Recupero AL, López Laur JD. Leptin increases prostate cancer aggressiveness. J Physiol Biochem. 2011;4: 531-538.
70. Luo J, Dunn T, Ewing C, Sauvageot J, Chen Y, Trent J, Isaacs W. Gene expression signature of benign prostatic hyperplasia revealed by cDNA microarray analysis. Prostate. 2002;51:189-200.
71. Magi-Galluzi C, Parsons JK, Fedor H, Platz EA, Miller GJ, De Marzo AM. The prevalence and extent of autopsy benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is less in Southeast Asian men than North American men. J Urol. 2004;171(suppl):406.
72. McKeehan WL, Adams PS, Rosser MP. Direct mitogenic effects of insulin, epidermal growth factor, glucocorticoid, cholera toxin, unknown pituitary factors and possibly prolactin, but not androgen, on normal rat prostate epithelial cells in serum-free, primary cell culture. Cancer Res. 1984;44:1998-2010.
73. Meikle AW, Stephenson RA, Lewis CM, Middleton RG. Effects of age and sex hormones on transition and peripheral zone volumes of prostate and benign prostatic hyperplasia in twins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:571-575.
74. Meyer F, Bairati I, Shadmani R, Fradet Y, Moore L. Dietary fat and prostate cancer survival. Cancer Causes Control. 1999;10:245-251.
75. Michalakis K, Williams CJ, Mitsiades N, Blakeman J, Balafouta-Tselenis S, Giannopoulous A, Mantzoros CS. Serum adiponectin concentrations and tissue expression of adiponectin receptors are reduced in patients with prostate cancer: a case control study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16:308-313.
76. Mills PK, Beeson WL, Phillips RL, Fraser GE. Cohort study of diet, lifestyle, and prostate cancer in Adventist men. Cancer. 1989 64:598-604.
77. Mitropoulos D, Ploumidou K, Kyroudi-Voulgari A, Perea D, Kittas C, Karayannacos P. Hypercholesterol diet (HD) alters serum lipid profile and ventral prostate structure in rats. Eur Urol. 2003; 2(suppl):20.
78. Mohamed-Ali V, Pinkney JH, Coppack SW. Adipose tissue as an endocrine and paracrine organ. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998;22:1145-1158.
79. Montie JE, Pienta KJ. Review of the role of androgenic hormones in the epidemiology of benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer. Urology. 1994;43:892-899.
80. Moyad MA. Dietary fat reduction to reduce prostate cancer risk: controlled enthusiasm, learning a lesson from breast or other cancers, and the big picture. Urology. 2002;59:51-62.
81. Muller H, Raum E, Rothenbacher D, Stegmaier C, Brenner H. Association of diabetes and body mass index with levels of prostate-specific antigen: implications for correction of prostatespecific antigen cutoff values Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2009;18:1350-1356.
82. Nandeesha H, Koner BC, Dorairajan LN, Sen SK. Hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia in non-diabetic benign prostatic hyperplasia. Clin Chim Acta. 2006;370:89-93.
83. Nomura A, Heilbrun LK, Stemmermann GN, Judd HL. Prediagnostic serum hormones and the risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 1988;48:3515-3517.
84. Nomura AM, Kolonel LN. Prostate cancer: a current perspective. Epidemiol Rev. 1991;13:200-227.
85. O'Mara BA, Byers T, Schoenfeld E. Diabetes mellitus and cancer risk: a multisite case-control study. J Chronic Dis. 1985;38:435-441.
86. Onuma M, Bub JD, Rummel TL, Iwamoto Y. Prostate cancer celladipocyte interaction: leptin mediates androgen-independent prostate cancer cell proliferation through c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase. J Biol Chem. 2003;278:42660-42667.
87. Ornish D, Magbanua MJ, Weidner G, Weinberg V, Kemp C, Green C, Mattie MD, Marlin R, Simko J, Shinohara K, Haqq CM, Carroll PR. Changes in prostate gene expression in men undergoing an intensive nutrition and lifestyle intervention. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008;105:8369-8374.
88. Ozden C, Ozdal OL, Urgancioglu G, Koyuncu H, Gokkaya S, Memis A. The correlation between metabolic syndrome and prostatic growth in patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Eur Urol. 2007;51:199-203; discussion 204-206.
89. Pandalai PK, Pilat MJ, Yamazaki K, Naik H, Pienta KJ. The effects of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids on in vitro prostate cancer growth. Anticancer Res. 1996;16:815-820.
90. Park HK, Lee HW, Lee KS, Byun SS, Jeong SJ, Hong SK, Lee SE, Park JH, Lee SB, Kim KW, Korean Longitudinal Study on Health and Aging. Relationship between lower urinary tract symptoms and metabolic syndrome in a community-based elderly population. Urology. 2008;72:556-560.
91. Parkin DM, Whelan SL, Ferlay J, Raymond L, Teppo L, Thomas DB. Cancer Incidence in Five Continents. Vol 3. Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer; International Association of Cancer Registries; 2002.
92. Parsons JK. Modifiable risk factors for benign prostatic hyperplasia and lower urinary tract symptoms: new approaches to old problems. J Urol. 2007;178:395-401.
93. Parsons JK, Bergstrom J, Barrett-Connor E. Lipids, Lipoproteins and risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia in community-dwelling men. BJU Int. 2008;101:313-318.
94. Parsons JK, Carter HB, Partin AW, Windham BG, Metter EJ, Ferrucci L, Landis P, Platz EA. Metabolic factors associated with benign prostatic hyperplasia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91: 2562-2568.
95. Parsons JK, Sarma AV, McVary K, Wei JT. Obesity and benign prostatic hyperplasia: clinical connections, emerging etiological paradigms and future directions. J Urol. 2009;182(6 suppl): S27-S31.
96. Perabo FG, Von Low EC, Ellinger J, von Rucker A, Muller SC, Bastian PJ. Soy isoflavone genistein in prevention and treatment of prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2008;11:6-12.
97. Pienta KJ, Esper PS. Risk factors for prostate cancer. Ann Intern Med. 1993;118:793-803
98. Pittas AG, Joseph NA, Greenberg AS. Adipocytokines and insulin resistance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:447-452.
99. Platz EA, Giovannucci E, Dahl DM, Krithivas K, Hennekens CH, Brown M, Stampfer MJ, Kantoff PW. The androgen receptor gene GGN microsatellite and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 1998;7:379-384.
100. Platz EA, Leitzmann MF, Visvanathan K, Rimm EB, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Giovannucci E. Statin drugs and risk of advanced prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98:1819-1825.
101. Pongchaiyakul C, Kosulwat V, Rojroongwasinkul N, Charoenkiatkul S, Thepsuthammarat K, Laopaiboon M, Nguyen TV, Rajatanavin R. Prediction of percentage body fat in rural thai population using simple anthropometric measurements. Obes Res. 2005;13:729-738.
102. Prabhat P, Tewari R, Natu SM, Dalela D, Goel A, Tandon P, Goel MM, Singh K. Is central obesity, hyperinsulinemia and dyslipidemia associated with high-grade prostate cancer A descriptive cross-sectional study. Indian J Urol. 2010;26:502-506.
103. Ranjan P, Dalela D, Sankhwar SN. Diet and benign prostatic hyperplasia: implications for prevention. Urology. 2006;68: 470-476.
104. Rao CN, Singh MK, Shekhar T, Venugopal K, Prasad MR, Saleem KL, Satyanarayana U. Causes of lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) in adult Indian males. Indian J Urol. 2004;20:95-100.
105. Remzi M, Fong YK, Dobrovits M, Anagnostou T, Seitz C, Waldert M, Harik M, Marihart S, Marberger M, Djavan B. The Vienna nomogram: validation of a novel biopsy strategy defining the optimal number of cores based on patient age and total prostate volume. J Urol. 2005;174:1256-1260.
106. Roberts CK, Barnard RJ. Effects of exercise and diet on chronic disease. J Appl Physiol. 2005;98:3-30.
107. Rodriguez C, Freedland SJ, Deka A, Jacobs EJ, McCullough ML, Patel AV, Thun MJ, Calle EE. Body mass index, weight change, and risk of prostate cancer in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16: 63-69.
108. Rodriguez C, Patel AV, Calle EE, Jacobs EJ, Chao A, Thum MJ. Body mass index, height, and prostate cancer mortality in two large cohorts of adult men in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2001;10:345-353.
109. Rohrmann S, Giovannucci E, Willett WC, Platz EA. Fruit and vegetable consumption, intake of micronutrients, and benign prostatic hyperplasia in US men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;85:523-529.
110. Rohrmann S, Roberts WW, Walsh PC, Platz EA. Family history of prostate cancer and obesity in relation to high-grade disease and extraprostatic extension in young men with prostate cancer. Prostate. 2003;55:140-146.
111. Rohrmann S, Smit E, Giovannucci E, Platz EA. Associations of obesity with lower urinary tract symptoms and noncancer prostate surgery in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:390-397.
112. Rosenberg DJ, Neugut AI, Ahsan H, Shea S. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Invest. 2002;20:157-165.
113. Saad F, Gooren LJ. The role of testosterone in the etiology and treatment of obesity, the metabolic syndrome, and diabetes mellitus type 2. J Obes. 2011 (in press).
114. Saglam K, Aydur E, Yilmaz M, Goktas S. Leptin influences cellular differentiation and progression in prostate cancer. J Urol. 2003;169:1308-1311.
115. Sarma AV, Parsons JK, McVary K, Wei JT. Diabetes and benign prostatic hyperplasia/lower urinary tract symptoms-what do we know J Urol. 2009;182(6 suppl):S32-S37.
116. Schatzl G, Brossner C, Schmid S, Kugler W, Roehrich M, Treu T, Szalay A, Djavan B, Schmidbauer CP, Soregi S, Madersbacher S. Endocrine status in elderly men with lower urinary tract symptoms: correlation of age, hormonal status, and lower urinary tract function. The Prostate Study Group of the Austrian Society of Urology. Urology. 2000;55:397-402.
117. Schenk JM, Kristal AR, Neuhouser ML, Tangen CM, White E, Lin DW, Thompson IM. Serum adiponectin, C-peptide and leptin and risk of symptomatic benign prostatic hyperplasia: results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. Prostate. 2009;69:1303-1311.
118. Schuurman AG, van den Brandt PA, Dorant E, Brants HA, Goldbohm RA. Association of energy and fat intake with prostate carcinoma risk: results from The Netherlands Cohort Study. Cancer. 1999;86:1019-1027.
119. Seim A, Hoyo C, Ostbye T, Vatten L. The prevalence and correlates of urinary tract symptoms in Norwegian men: the HUNT study. BJU Int. 2005;96:88-92.
120. Severson RK, Nomura AM, Grove JS, Stemmermann GN. A prospective study of demographics, diet, and prostate cancer among men of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii. Cancer Res. 1989;49:1857-1860.
121. Shaneyfelt T, Husein R, Bubley G, Mantzoros CS. Hormonal predictors of prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:847-853.
122. Shirai T, Asamoto M, Takahashi S, Imaida K. Diet and prostate cancer. Toxicology. 2002;181-182:89-94.
123. Shirai T, Sano M, Tamano S, Takahashi S, Hirose M, Futakuchi M, Hasegawa R, Imaida K, Matsumoto K, Wakabayasi K, Sugimura T, Ito N. The prostate: a target for carcinogenicity of 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP) derived from cooked foods. Cancer Res. 1997;57:195-198.
124. Siddiqui SA, Inman BA, Sengupta S, Slezak JM, Bergstralh EJ, Leibovich BC, Zincke H, Blute ML. Obesity and survival after radical prostatectomy: A 10-year prospective cohort study. Cancer. 2006;107:521-529.
125. Silverman DT, Schiffman M, Everhart J, Goldstein A, Lillemoe KD, Swanson GM, Schwartz AG, Brown LM, Greenberg RS, Schoenberg JB, Pottern LM, Hoover RN, Fraumeni JF Jr. Diabetes mellitus, other medical conditions and familial history of cancer as risk factors for pancreatic cancer. Br J Cancer. 1999;80:1830-1837.
126. Steppan CM, Lazar MA. Resistin and obesity-associated insulin resistance. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2002;13:18-23.
127. Strom SS, Wang X, Pettaway CA, Logothetis CJ, Yamamura Y, Do KA, Babaian RJ, Troncoso P. Obesity, weight gain, and risk of biochemical failure among prostate cancer patients following prostatectomy. Clin Cancer Res. 2005;11:6889-6894.
128. Suzuki S, Platz EA, Kawachi I, Willett WC, Giovannucci E. Intakes of energy and macronutrients and the risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;75:689-697.
129. Tande AJ, Platz EA, Folsom AR. The metabolic syndrome is associated with reduced risk of prostate cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 2006;164:1094-1102.
130. Tewari R, Prabhat P, Natu SM, Dalela D, Goel A, Goel MM, Tandon P. Association of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) with the metabolic syndrome (MS) and its components-a growing dilemma. J Men Health. 2011;8:66-71.
131. Tokuda Y, Satoh Y, Fujiyama C, Toda S, Sugihara H, Masaki Z. Prostate cancer cell growth is modulated by adipocyte-cancer cell interaction. BJU Int. 2003;91:716-720.
132. Veierod MB, Laake P, Thelle DS. Dietary fat intake and risk of prostate cancer: a prospective study of 25,708 Norwegian men. Int J Cancer. 1997;73:634-638.
133. Wajchenberg BL. Subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissue: their relation to the metabolic syndrome. Endocr Rev. 2000;21:697-738.
134. Wang Y, Corr JG, Thaler HT, Tao Y, Fair WR, Heston WD. Decreased growth of established human prostate LNCaP tumors in nude mice fed a low-fat diet. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1995;87: 1456-1462.
135. Ward E, Jemal A, Cokkinides V, Singh GK, Cardinez C, Ghafoor A, Thun M. Cancer disparities by race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status. CA Cancer J Clin. 2004;54:78-93.
136. Way JM, Gorgun CZ, Tong Q, Uysal KT, Brown KK, Harrington WW, Oliver WR Jr, Willson TM, Kliewer SA, Hotamisligil GS. Adipose tissue resistin expression is severely suppressed in obesity and stimulated by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma agonists. J Biol Chem. 2001;276:25651-25653.
137. Weiderpass E, Persson I, Adami HO, Magnusson C, Lindgren A, Baron JA. Body size in different periods of life, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and risk of postmenopausal endometrial cancer (Sweden). Cancer Causes Control. 2000;11:185-192.
138. Weyer C, Funahashi T, Tanaka S, Hotta K, Matsuzawa Y, Pratley RE, Tataranni PA. Hypoadiponectinemia in obesity and type 2 diabetes: close association with insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86:1930-1935.
139. Wigle DT, Turner MC, Gomes J, Parent ME. Role of hormonal and other factors in human prostate cancer. J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 2008;3-4:242-259.
140. Wilkens LR, Hankin JH, Yoshizawa CN, Kolonel LN, Lee J. Comparison of long-term dietary recall between cancer cases and noncases. Am J Epidemiol. 1992;136:825-835.
141. Wilson KM, Giovannucci E, Stampfer JM, Mucci AL. Dietary acrylamide and risk of prostate cancer. Int J Cancer. 2012;131: 479-487.
142. Wuermli L, Joerger M, Henz S, Schmid HP, Riesen WF, Thomas G, Krek W, Cerny T, Gillessen S. Hypertriglyceridemia as a possible risk factor for prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2005;8:316-320.
143. Yeole BB. Trends in the prostate cancer incidence in India. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2008;9:141-144.
144. Yu H, Harris RE, Gao YT, Gao R, Wynder EL. Comparative epidemiology of cancers of the colon, rectum, prostate and breast in Shanghai, China versus the United States. Int J Epidemiol. 1991;20:76-81.
145. Zeigler-Johnson CM, Walker AH, Mancke B, Spangler E, Jalloh M, McBride S, Deitz A, Malkowicz SB, Ofori-Adjei D, Gueye SM, Rebbeck TR. Ethnic differences in the frequency of prostate cancer susceptibility alleles at SRD5A2 and CYP3A4. Hum Hered. 2002;54:13-21.
146. Zhu K, Lee IM, Sesso HD, Buring JE, Levine RS, Gaziano JM. History of diabetes mellitus and risk of prostate cancer in physicians. Am J Epidemiol. 2004;159:978-982.
147. Zilli T, Nguyen TV, Bahary JP, Chagnon M, Dufresne A, Taussky D. Prognostic impact of abdominal adiposity, waist circumference and body mass index in patients with intermediate-risk prostate cancer treated with radiotherapy. Int J Obes (Lond). 2011;35:1421-1426.
148. Zucchetto A, Tavani A, Dal Maso L, Gallus S, Negri E, Talamini R, Franceschi S, Montella M, La Vecchia C. History of weight and obesity through life and risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia. Int J Obes (Lond). 2005;29:798-803.