To Discover or to Create: Metaphors and the True Self

Journal of Personality

Volumn 80, Issue 4, 2012, Pages 969-993

  Schlegel, Rebecca J ^a   Vess, Matthew ^b   Arndt, Jamie ^c  

^a TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b OHIO UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFFECT; ARTICLE; COMPREHENSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LITERATURE; MALE; QUESTIONNAIRE; SELF CONCEPT; STUDENT; UNIVERSITY;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AFFECT; COMPREHENSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; METAPHOR; QUESTIONNAIRES; SELF CONCEPT; STUDENTS; UNIVERSITIES;

EID: 84863744076     PISSN: 00223506     EISSN: 14676494     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2011.00753.x     Document Type: Article

References (46)

1. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2. Bargh, J. A., McKenna, K. Y., & Fitzsimmons, G. M. (2002). Can you see the real me? Activation and expression of the "true self" on the internet. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 34-58.
3. Baumeister, R. F. (1991). Meanings of life. New York: Guilford Press.
4. Bellah, R. N., Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. Berkeley: University of California Press.
5. Bettencourt, B. A., & Sheldon, K. (2001). Social roles as mechanisms for psychological need satisfaction within social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 1131-1143.
6. Debats, D. L., Drost, J., & Hansen, P. (1995). Experiences of meaning in life: A combined qualitative and quantitative approach. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 359-375.
7. Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Philadelphia: Psychology Press.
8. Erdley, C. A., Cain, K. M., Loomis, C. C., Dumas-Hines, F., & Dweck, C. S. (1997). Relations among children's social goals, implicit personality theories, and responses to social failure. Developmental Psychology, 33, 263-272.
9. Erikson, E. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
10. Fromm, E. (1947). Man for Himself. Greenwich, CT: Fawcett Premier.
11. Fromm, E. (1941/1969). Escape from freedom. New York: Avon Books.
12. Gibbs, R. W., Jr. (1992). Categorization and metaphor understanding. Psychological Review, 99, 572-577.
13. Goetz, T. E., & Dweck, C. S. (1980). Learned helplessness in social situations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 246-255.
14. Harter, S., Marold, D. B., Whitesell, N. R., & Cobbs, G. (1996). A model of the effects of parent and peer support on adolescent false self behavior. Child Development, 67, 360-374.
15. Horney, K. (1950). Neurosis and human growth: The struggle toward self-realization. Oxford, UK: W. W. Norton.
16. Kegan, R. (1982). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
17. Kernis, M. H., & Goldman, B. M. (2006). A multi-component conceptualization of authenticity: Theory and research. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 283-387). New York: Academic Press.
18. Kierkegaard, S. (1983). The sickness unto death (H. F. Hong & E. H. Hong, Trans.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. (Original work published in 1849)
19. King, L. A., Hicks, J. A., Krull, J., & Baker, A. G. (2006). Positive affect and the experience of meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 179-196.
20. Lakey, C. E., Kernis, M. H., Heppner, W. L., & Lance, C. E. (2008). Individual differences in authenticity and mindfulness as predictors of verbal defensiveness. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 230-238.
21. Lakoff, G. (1996). Moral politics: What conservatives know that liberals don't. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
22. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
23. Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1999). Philosophy in the flesh: The embodied mind and its challenge to Western thought. New York: Basic Books.
24. Landau, M. J., Meier, B., & Keefer, L. (2010). A metaphor-enriched social cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 1045-1067.
25. Landau, M. J., Vess, M., Arndt, J., Rothschild, Z., Sullivan, D., & Atchley, R. A. (2011). Embodied metaphor and the "true" self: Priming entity expansion and protection influences intrinsic self-expressions in self-perceptions and interpersonal behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49, 79-87.
26. May, R. (1950). The meaning of anxiety. New York: Norton.
27. McAdams, D. P. (2006). The redemptive self: Stories Americans live by. New York: Cambridge University Press.
28. McGregor, I., & Little, B. R. (1998). Personal projects, happiness, and meaning: On doing well and being yourself. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 494-512.
29. McLean, K. C., Pasupathi, M., & Pals, J. L. (2007). Selves creating stories creating selves: A process model of self-development. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 11, 262-278.
30. Meier, B. P., Hauser, D. J., Robinson, M. D., Friesen, C. K., & Schjeldahl, K. (2007). What's "up" with God? Vertical space as a representation of the divine. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 699-710.
31. Miller, A. (1979). The drama of the gifted child: The search for the true self. New York: Basic Books.
32. Pascarella, E. T., & Terenzini, P. T. (1991). How college affects students: Findings and insights from 20 years of research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
33. Pasupathi, M. (2001). The social construction of the personal past and its implications for adult development. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 651-672.
34. Rogers, C. R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality and interpersonal relationships, as developed in the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study of science (pp. 184-256). New York: McGraw-Hill.
35. Ryan, R. M., LaGuardia, J. G., & Rawsthorne, L. J. (2005). Self-complexity and the authenticity of self-aspects on well being and resilience to stressful events. North American Journal of Psychology, 7, 431-448.
36. Sartre, J. P. (1956). Being and nothingness. New York: Philosophical Library.
37. Schlegel, R. J., & Hicks, J. A. (2011). The true self and psychological health: Emerging evidence and future directions. Personality and Social Psychology Compass, 5, 989-1003.
38. Schlegel, R. J., Hicks, J. A., Arndt, J., & King L. A. (2009). Thine own self: True self-concept accessibility and meaning in life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96, 473-490.
39. Schlegel, R. J., Hicks, J. A., King, L. A., & Arndt, J. A. (2011). Feeling like you know who you are: Perceived true self-knowledge and meaning in life. Personality and Social Psychological Bulletin, 37, 745-756.
40. Schwartz, B. (2004). The paradox of choice: Why more is less. New York: HarperCollins.
41. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L., & Ilardi, B. (1997). "True" self and "trait" self: Cross-role variation in the Big Five traits and its relations with authenticity and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1380-1393.
42. Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The Meaning in Life Questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 80-93.
43. Szasz, T. S. (1973). The second sin. Norwell, MA: Anchor Press.
44. Waterman, A. S. (1984). Identity formation: Discovery or creation? Journal of Early Adolescence, 4, 329-341.
45. Winnicott, D. W. (1960). Ego distortion in terms of true and false self. In the maturational process and the facilitating environment: Studies in the theory of emotional development (pp. 140-152). New York: International UP.
46. Wood, A. M., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Baliousis, M., & Joseph, S. (2008). The authentic personality: A theoretical and empirical conceptualization and the development of the Authenticity Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55, 385-399.