Illicit drugs I: Amphetamines

Clinical Neurotoxicology: Syndromes, Substances, Environments

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 303-313

  Judge, Bryan S ^a,b   Rusyniak, Daniel E ^c  

^a Emergency Medicine Grand Rapids Medical Education And Research Center   (United States)

^b HELEN DEVOS CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^c INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84862830871     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-032305260-3.50033-2     Document Type: Chapter

References (145)

1. Rasmussen N Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929-1950. J Hist Med Allied Sci 2006, 61:288-323.
2. Jackson CO The amphetamine inhaler: a case study of medical abuse. J Hist Med Allied Sci 1971, 26:187-196.
3. Leavesley JH Adolph Hitler. Med J Aust 1985, 142:687-688.
4. Lovell R Lord Moran's prescriptions for Churchill. BMJ 1995, 310:1537-1538.
5. Streit F Recommendations for demand reduction of amphetamines. Chem Depend 1980, 4:135-143.
6. Jerrard D "Designer drugs": a current perspective. J Emerg Med 1990, 8:733-741.
7. Buchanan JF, Brown CR "Designer drugs": a problem in clinical toxicology. Med Toxicol 1988, 3:1-17.
8. U.S.Drug Enforcement Administration Controlled Substance Analogues Accessed August 4, 2007. http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/abuse/1-csa.htm.
9. Schwartz RH, Miller NS MDMA (Ecstasy) and the rave: a review. Pediatrics 1997, 100:705-708.
10. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Results from the 2005 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (Office of Applied Studies, NSDUH Series H-30, DHHS Publication No. SMA 06-4194) 2006, SMA, Rockville, Md.
11. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Results from the 2002 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings (Office of Applied Studies, NHSDA Series H-22, DHHS Publication No. SMA 03-3836) 2003, SMA, Rockville, Md.
12. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2005. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. (Office of Applied Studies, DAWN Series D-29, DHHS Publication No. SMA 07-4256) 2007, SMA, Rockville, Md.
13. Hunt D, Kuck S, Truitt L Methamphetamine Use: Lessons Learned. Final report to the National Institute of Justice, February 2006 (NCJ 209730) Accessed August 5, 2007. http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/209730.pdf.
14. U.S.Drug Enforcement Administration Maps of Methamphetamine Lab Incidents Accessed August 5, 2007. http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/map_lab_seizures.html.
15. Hunt D Methamphetamine abuse: challenges for law enforcement and communities. NIJ J 2006, 24-27.
16. Fleckenstein AE, Volz TJ, Riddle EL, et al. New insights into the mechanism of action of amphetamines. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2007, 47:681-698.
17. Seiden LS, Sabol KE, Ricaurte GA Amphetamine: effects on catecholamine systems and behavior. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1993, 33:639-677.
18. Fitzgerald JL, Reid JJ Interactions of methylenedioxymethamphetamine with monoamine transmitter release mechanisms in rat brain slices. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 1993, 347:313-323.
19. Rothman RB, Baumann MH, Dersch CM, et al. Amphetamine-type central nervous system stimulants release norepinephrine more potently than they release dopamine and serotonin. Synapse 2001, 39:32-41.
20. Baumann MH, Wang X, Rothman RB 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) neurotoxicity in rats: a reappraisal of past and present findings. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007, 189:407-424.
21. Fitzgerald JL, Reid JJ Effects of methylenedioxymethamphetamine on the release of monoamines from rat brain slices. Eur J Pharmacol 1990, 191:217-220.
22. Gough B, Imam SZ, Blough B, et al. Comparative effects of substituted amphetamines (PMA, MDMA, and METH) on monoamines in rat caudate: a microdialysis study. Ann NY Acad Sci 2002, 965:410-420.
23. Yamamoto BK, Spanos LJ The acute effects of methylenedioxymethamphetamine on dopamine release in the awake-behaving rat. Eur J Pharmacol 1988, 148:195-203.
24. Bankson MG, Cunningham KA 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) as a unique model of serotonin receptor function and serotonin-dopamine interactions. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2001, 297:846-852.
25. Koch S, Galloway MP MDMA induced dopamine release in vivo: role of endogenous serotonin. J Neural Transm 1997, 104:135-146.
26. Sprague JE, Banks ML, Cook VJ, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and sympathetic nervous system involvement in hyperthermia induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy). J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2003, 305:159-166.
27. Sprague JE, Brutcher RE, Mills EM, et al. Attenuation of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy)-induced rhabdomyolysis with α1- plus β3-adrenoreceptor antagonists. Br J Pharmacol 2004, 142:667-670.
28. Sprague JE, Moze P, Caden D, et al. Carvedilol reverses hyperthermia and attenuates rhabdomyolysis induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, Ecstasy) in an animal model. Crit Care Med 2005, 33:1311-1316.
29. Mechan AO, Esteban B, O'Shea E, et al. The pharmacology of the acute hyperthermic response that follows administration of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, "Ecstasy") to rats. Br J Pharmacol 2002, 135:170-180.
30. 1A receptor density and 8-OH-DPAT-induced hypothermia: blockade by drugs preventing 5-hydroxytryptamine depletion. Eur J Pharmacol 1998, 346:181-188.
31. Bowyer JF, Davies DL, Schmued L, et al. Further studies of the role of hyperthermia in methamphetamine neurotoxicity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1994, 268:1571-1580.
32. Blessing WW, Seaman B, Pedersen NP, et al. Clozapine reverses hyperthermia and sympathetically mediated cutaneous vasoconstriction induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) in rabbits and rats. J Neurosci 2003, 23:6385-6391.
33. 2A receptor in the hyperlocomotive and hyperthermic effects of (+)-3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005, 178:505-513.
34. Buxton N, McConachie NS Amphetamine abuse and intracranial haemorrhage. J R Soc Med 2000, 93:472-477.
35. Petitti DB, Sidney S, Quesenberry C, et al. Stroke and cocaine or amphetamine use. Epidemiology 1998, 9:596-600.
36. Westover AN, McBride S, Haley RW Stroke in young adults who abuse amphetamines or cocaine: a population-based study of hospitalized patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007, 64:495-502.
37. Kernan WN, Viscoli CM, Brass LM, et al. Phenylpropanolamine and the risk of hemorrhagic stroke. N Engl J Med 2000, 343:1826-1832.
38. Yoon BW, Bae HJ, Hong KS, et al. Phenylpropanolamine contained in cold remedies and risk of hemorrhagic stroke. Neurology 2007, 68:146-149.
39. Selmi F, Davies KG, Sharma RR, et al. Intracerebral haemorrhage due to amphetamine abuse: report of two cases with underlying arteriovenous malformations. Br J Neurosurg 1995, 9:93-96.
40. Harrington H, Heller HA, Dawson D, et al. Intracerebral hemorrhage and oral amphetamine. Arch Neurol 1983, 40:503-507.
41. Gold LH, Geyer MA, Koob GF Neurochemical mechanisms involved in behavioral effects of amphetamines and related designer drugs. NIDA Res Monogr 1989, 94:101-126.
42. Karler R, Calder LD, Thai LH, et al. The dopaminergic, glutamatergic, GABAergic bases for the action of amphetamine and cocaine. Brain Res 1995, 671:100-104.
43. Rhee KJ, Albertson TE, Douglas JC Choreoathetoid disorder associated with amphetamine-like drugs. Am J Emerg Med 1988, 6:131-133.
44. Mattson RH, Calverley JR Dextroamphetamine-sulfate-induced dyskinesias. JAMA 1968, 204:400-402.
45. Klawans HL, Weiner WJ The effect of d-amphetamine on choreiform movement disorders. Neurology 1974, 24:312-318.
46. Lundh H, Tunving K An extrapyramidal choreiform syndrome caused by amphetamine addiction. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1981, 44:728-730.
47. Malberg JE, Seiden LS Small changes in ambient temperature cause large changes in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-induced serotonin neurotoxicity and core body temperature in the rat. J Neurosci 1998, 18:5086-5094.
48. Ali SF, Newport GD, Holson RR, et al. Low environmental temperatures or pharmacologic agents that produce hypothermia decrease methamphetamine neurotoxicity in mice. Brain Res 1994, 658:33-38.
49. Miller DB, O'Callaghan JP Elevated environmental temperature and methamphetamine neurotoxicity. Environ Res 2003, 92:48-53.
50. Marzuk PM, Tardiff K, Leon AC, et al. Ambient temperature and mortality from unintentional cocaine overdose. JAMA 1998, 279:1795-1800.
51. Pedersen NP, Blessing WW Cutaneous vasoconstriction contributes to hyperthermia induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy) in conscious rabbits. J Neurosci 2001, 21:8648-8654.
52. Crandall CG, Vongpatanasin W, Victor RG Mechanism of cocaine-induced hyperthermia in humans. Ann Intern Med 2002, 136:785-791.
53. Milesi-Halle A, McMillan DE, Laurenzana EM, et al. Sex differences in (+)-amphetamine- and (+)-methamphetamine-induced behavioral response in male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2007, 86:140-149.
54. Spanos LJ, Yamamoto BK Acute and subchronic effects of methylenedioxymethamphetamine [(+/-)MDMA] on locomotion and serotonin syndrome behavior in the rat. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1989, 32:835-840.
55. Avois L, Robinson N, Saudan C, et al. Central nervous system stimulants and sport practice. Br J Sports Med 2006, 40(Suppl 1):i16-i20.
56. Duarte JA, Leao A, Magalhaes J, et al. Strenuous exercise aggravates MDMA-induced skeletal muscle damage in mice. Toxicology 2005, 206:349-358.
57. Harding M, Peterson DI The effect of exercise and limitation of movement on amphetamine toxicity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1963, 145:47-51.
58. Rusyniak DE, Tandy SL, Hekmatyar SK, et al. The role of mitochondrial uncoupling in 3-4, methylenedioxymethamphetamine mediated skeletal muscle hyperthermia and rhabdomyolysis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005, 312:629-639.
59. Nicholls DG, Locke RM Thermogenic mechanisms in brown fat. Physiol Rev 1984, 64:1-64.
60. Blessing WW, Zilm A, Ootsuka Y Clozapine reverses increased brown adipose tissue thermogenesis induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and by cold exposure in conscious rats. Neuroscience 2006, 141:2067-2073.
61. Wellman PJ Influence of amphetamine on brown adipose thermogenesis. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 1983, 41:173-176.
62. Boss O, Samec S, Paoloni-Giacobino A, et al. Uncoupling protein-3: a new member of the mitochondrial carrier family with tissue-specific expression. FEBS Letters 1997, 408:39-42.
63. Mills EM, Rusyniak DE, Sprague JE The role of the sympathetic nervous system and uncoupling proteins in the thermogenesis induced by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. J Mol Med 2004, 82:787-799.
64. Mills EM, Banks ML, Sprague JE, et al. Uncoupling the agony from Ecstasy. Nature 2003, 426:403-404.
65. Sprague JE, Mallett NM, Rusyniak DE, et al. UCP3 and thyroid hormone involvement in methamphetamine-induced hyperthermia. Biochem Pharmacol 2004, 68:1339-1343.
66. Fiege M, Wappler F, Weisshorn R, et al. Induction of malignant hyperthermia in susceptible swine by 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("Ecstasy"). Anesthesiology 2003, 99:1132-1136.
67. Hall AP, Henry JA Acute toxic effects of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) and related compounds: overview of pathophysiology and clinical management. Br J Anaesth 2006, 96:678-685.
68. Rusyniak DE, Banks ML, Mills EM, et al. Dantrolene use in 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (Ecstasy)-mediated hyperthermia. Anesthesiology 2004, 101:263. author reply, 264.
69. Lister D, Hall GM, Lucke JN Porcine malignant hyperthermia: III. Adrenergic blockade. Br J Anaesth 1976, 48:831-838.
70. Dar KJ, McBrien ME MDMA induced hyperthermia: report of a fatality and review of current therapy. Intensive Care Med 1996, 22:995-996.
71. Ginsberg MD, Hertzman M, Schmidt-Nowara WW Amphetamine intoxication with coagulopathy, hyperthermia, and reversible renal failure: a syndrome resembling heatstroke. Ann Intern Med 1970, 73:81-85.
72. Henry JA, Jeffreys KJ, Dawling S Toxicity and deaths from 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("Ecstasy"). Lancet 1992, 340:384-387.
73. Milroy CM, Clark JC, Forrest AR Pathology of deaths associated with "Ecstasy" and "eve" misuse. J Clin Pathol 1996, 49:149-153.
74. Gowing LR, Henry-Edwards SM, Irvine RJ, et al. The health effects of Ecstasy: a literature review. Drug Alcohol Rev 2002, 21:53-63.
75. Judge BS Differentiating the causes of metabolic acidosis in the poisoned patient. Clin Lab Med 2006, 26:31-48.
76. Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, et al. Loss of dopamine transporters in methamphetamine abusers recovers with protracted abstinence. J Neurosci 2001, 21:9414-9418.
77. Volkow ND, Chang L, Wang GJ, et al. Association of dopamine transporter reduction with psychomotor impairment in methamphetamine abusers. Am J Psychiatry 2001, 158:377-382.
78. Wilson JM, Kalasinsky KS, Levey AI, et al. Striatal dopamine nerve terminal markers in human, chronic methamphetamine users. Nat Med 1996, 2:699-703.
79. Moszczynska A, Fitzmaurice P, Ang L, et al. Why is parkinsonism not a feature of human methamphetamine users?. Brain 2004, 127:363-370.
80. Bowyer JF, Holson RR Methamphetamine and amphetamine neurotoxicity. Handbook of Neurotoxicology 1995, 845-870. Marcel Dekker, New York. L.W. Chang, R.S. Dyer (Eds.).
81. Guilarte TR Is methamphetamine abuse a risk factor in parkinsonism?. Neurotoxicology 2001, 22:725-731.
82. Hanson GR, Rau KS, Fleckenstein AE The methamphetamine experience: a NIDA partnership. Neuropharmacology 2004, 47(Suppl 1):92-100.
83. Seiden LS, Sabol KE Neurotoxicity of methamphetamine-related drugs and cocaine. Handbook of Neurotoxicology 1995, 825-843. Marcel Dekker, New York. L.W. Chang, R.S. Dyer (Eds.).
84. Garwood ER, Bekele W, McCulloch CE, et al. Amphetamine exposure is elevated in Parkinson's disease. Neurotoxicology 2006, 27:1003-1006.
85. Kuniyoshi SM, Jankovic J MDMA and parkinsonism. N Engl J Med 2003, 349:96-97.
86. Mintzer S, Hickenbottom S, Gilman S Parkinsonism after taking Ecstasy. N Engl J Med 1999, 340:1443.
87. Roberts JR, Greenberg MI Cocaine washout syndrome. Ann Intern Med 2000, 132:679-680.
88. Sporer KA, Lesser SH Cocaine washed-out syndrome. Ann Emerg Med 1992, 21:112.
89. Trabulsy ME Cocaine washed out syndrome in a patient with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Emerg Med 1995, 13:538-539.
90. Morley JE, Shafer RB, Elson MK, et al. Amphetamine-induced hyperthyroxinemia. Ann Intern Med 1980, 93:707-709.
91. Sprague JE, Yang X, Sommers J, et al. Roles of norepinephrine, free fatty acids, thyroid status, and skeletal muscle uncoupling protein 3 expression in sympathomimetic-induced thermogenesis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007, 320:274-280.
92. Dolfini E, Kobayashi M Studies with amphetamine in hyper- and hypothyroid rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1967, 2:65-66.
93. Halpern BN, Drudi-Baracco C, Bessirard D Exaltation of toxicity of sympathomimetic amines by thyroxine. Nature 1964, 204:387-388.
94. Halpern BN, Drudi-Baracco C, Bessirard D Potentiation of the absolute toxicity and group toxicity of L-ephedrine by thyroxine. C R Seances Soc Biol Fil 1964, 158:1284-1289.
95. Martin TL, Chiasson DA, Kish SJ Does hyperthyroidism increase risk of death due to the ingestion of Ecstasy?. J Forensic Sci 2007, 52:951-953.
96. Smith DE An analysis of 310 cases of acute high-dose methamphetamine toxicity in Haight-Ashbury. Clin Toxicol 1970, 3:117-124.
97. Smets G, Bronselaer K, De Munnynck K, et al. Amphetamine toxicity in the emergency department. Eur J Emerg Med 2005, 12:193-197.
98. Henry JA Metabolic consequences of drug misuse. Br J Anaesth 2000, 85:136-142.
99. Hart JB, Wallace J The adverse effects of amphetamines. Clin Toxicol 1975, 8:179-190.
100. Dalmau A, Bergman B, Brismar B Psychotic disorders among inpatients with abuse of cannabis, amphetamine and opiates: do dopaminergic stimulants facilitate psychiatric illness?. Eur Psychiatry 1999, 14:366-371.
101. Yui K, Ishiguro T, Goto K, et al. Precipitating factors in spontaneous recurrence of methamphetamine psychosis. Psychopharmacology 1997, 134:303-308.
102. Sue YM, Lee YL, Huang JJ Acute hyponatremia, seizure, and rhabdomyolysis after Ecstasy use. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2002, 40:931-940.
103. Kalantar-Zadeh K, Nguyen MK, Chang R, et al. Fatal hyponatremia in a young woman after Ecstasy ingestion. Nat Clin Pract Nephrol 2006, 2:283-288.
104. Satchell SC, Connaughton M Inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion and extreme rises in serum creatinine kinase following MDMA ingestion. Br J Hosp Med 1994, 51:495.
105. Ajaelo I, Koenig K, Snoey E Severe hyponatremia and inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion following Ecstasy use. Acad Emerg Med 1998, 5:839-840.
106. Wolff K, Tsapakis EM, Winstock AR, et al. Vasopressin and oxytocin secretion in response to the consumption of Ecstasy in a clubbing population. J Psychopharmacol 2006, 20:400-410.
107. Brvar M, Kozelj G, Osredkar J, et al. Polydipsia as another mechanism of hyponatremia after "Ecstasy" (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) ingestion. Eur J Emerg Med 2004, 11:302-304.
108. Kalant H The pharmacology and toxicology of "Ecstasy" (MDMA) and related drugs. CMAJ 2001, 165:917-928.
109. Rosenson J, Smollin C, Sporer KA, et al. Patterns of Ecstasy-associated hyponatremia in California. Ann Emerg Med 2007, 49:164-171.
110. Srisurapanont M, Jarusuraisin N, Kittirattanapaiboon P Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001, (4). CD003021.
111. Lago JA, Kosten TR Stimulant withdrawal. Addiction 1994, 89:1477-1481.
112. Watson R, Hartmann E, Schildkraut JJ Amphetamine withdrawal: affective state, sleep patterns, and MHPG excretion. Am J Psychiatry 1972, 129:263-269.
113. Cox D, Bowers R, McBride A Reboxetine may be helpful in the treatment of amphetamine withdrawal. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2004, 58:100-101.
114. Molina JD, de Pablo S, Lopez-Munoz F, et al. Monotherapy with reboxetine in amphetamine withdrawal syndrome. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2006, 30:1353-1355.
115. Saito T, Mase H, Takeichi S, et al. Rapid simultaneous determination of ephedrines, amphetamines, cocaine, cocaine metabolites, and opiates in human urine by GC-MS. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2007, 43:358-363.
116. Cody JT, Schwarzhoff R Fluorescence polarization immunoassay detection of amphetamine, methamphetamine, and illicit amphetamine analogues. J Anal Toxicol 1993, 17:23-33.
117. Brett AS Implications of discordance between clinical impression and toxicology analysis in drug overdose. Arch Intern Med 1988, 148:437-441.
118. Kellerman AL, Fihh SD, LoGerfo JP, et al. Impact of drug screening in suspected overdose. Ann Emerg Med 1987, 16:1206-1216.
119. Sporer KA, Ernst AA The effect of toxicologic screening on management of minimally symptomatic overdoses. Am J Emerg Med 1992, 10.
120. Sternbach H The serotonin syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1991, 148:705-713.
121. Isbister GK, Buckley NA The pathophysiology of serotonin toxicity in animals and humans: implications for diagnosis and treatment. Clin Neuropharmacol 2005, 28:205-214.
122. 1A receptors. Neuropharmacology 1986, 25:1307-1313.
123. Hjorth S Hypothermia in the rat induced by the potent serotoninergic agent 8-OH-DPAT. J Neural Transm 1985, 61:131-135.
124. 1A receptors. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2007, 323:477-487.
125. Nisijima K, Yoshino T, Yui K, et al. Potent serotonin (5-HT)(2A) receptor antagonists completely prevent the development of hyperthermia in an animal model of the 5-HT syndrome. Brain Res 2001, 890:23-31.
126. Van Oekelen D, Megens A, Meert T, et al. Role of 5-HT(2) receptors in the tryptamine-induced 5-HT syndrome in rats. Behav Pharmacol 2002, 13:313-318.
127. Blessing WW New treatment for Ecstasy-related hyperthermia. Intern Med J 2003, 33:555-556.
128. Graudins A, Stearman A, Chan B Treatment of the serotonin syndrome with cyproheptadine. J Emerg Med 1998, 16:615-619.
129. Lappin RI, Auchincloss EL Treatment of the serotonin syndrome with cyproheptadine. N Engl J Med 1994, 331:1021-1022.
130. Gillman PK The serotonin syndrome and its treatment. J Psychopharmacol (Oxf) 1999, 13:100-109.
131. Catravas JD, Waters IW, Davis WM, et al. Letter: Haloperidol for acute amphetamine poisoning: a study in dogs. JAMA 1975, 231:1340-1341.
132. Derlet RW, Albertson TE, Rice P Protection against d-amphetamine toxicity. Am J Emerg Med 1990, 8:105-108.
133. Burns MJ The pharmacology and toxicology of atypical antipsychotic agents. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2001, 39:1-14.
134. Hatzipetros T, Raudensky JG, Soghomonian JJ, et al. Haloperidol treatment after high-dose methamphetamine administration is excitotoxic to GABA cells in the substantia nigra pars reticulata. J Neurosci 2007, 27:5895-5902.
135. Makisumi T, Yoshida K, Watanabe T, et al. Sympatho-adrenal involvement in methamphetamine-induced hyperthermia through skeletal muscle hypermetabolism. Eur J Pharmacol 1998, 363:107-112.
136. Singarajah C, Lavies NG An overdose of Ecstasy: a role for dantrolene. Anaesthesia 1992, 47:686-687.
137. Watson JD, Ferguson C, Hinds CJ, et al. Exertional heat stroke induced by amphetamine analogues: does dantrolene have a place?. Anaesthesia 1993, 48:1057-1060.
138. Webb C, Williams V Ecstasy intoxication: appreciation of complications and the role of dantrolene. Anaesthesia 1993, 48:542-543.
139. Vogel WH, Miller J, DeTurck KH, et al. Effects of psychoactive drugs on plasma catecholamines during stress in rats. Neuropharmacology 1984, 23:1105-1108.
140. Derlet RW, Albertson TE, Rice P Antagonism of cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine toxicity. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1990, 36:745-749.
141. Nisijima K, Shioda K, Yoshino T, et al. Diazepam and chlormethiazole attenuate the development of hyperthermia in an animal model of the serotonin syndrome. Neurochem Int 2003, 43:155-164.
142. Derlet RW, Rice P, Horowitz BZ, et al. Amphetamine toxicity: experience with 127 cases. J Emerg Med 1989, 7:157-161.
143. Zalis EG, Lundberg GD, Kaplan G, et al. The effect of extracorporeal cooling on amphetamine toxicity. Arch Int Pharmacodyn Ther 1966, 159:189-195.
144. Hadad E, Rav-Acha M, Heled Y, et al. Heat stroke: a review of cooling methods. Sports Med 2004, 34:501-511.
145. Chou YT, Lai ST, Lee CC, et al. Hypothermia attenuates circulatory shock and cerebral ischemia in experimental heatstroke. Shock 2003, 19:388-393.