Surgical anatomy of the pectoral nerves and the pectoral musculature

Clinical Anatomy

Volumn 25, Issue 5, 2012, Pages 559-575

  Porzionato, Andrea ^a   MacChi, Veronica ^a   Stecco, Carla ^a   Loukas, Marios ^b   Tubbs, R Shane ^c   De Caro, Raffaele ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PADUA MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Italy)

^b ST GEORGE S UNIVERSITY   (Grenada)

^c CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

anatomical variation; iatrogenic injury; mastectomy; neurotization; pectoral muscles

Indexed keywords

ARTERY; AXILLARY ARCH MUSCLE; AXILLARY NERVE; BRACHIAL PLEXUS; CHONDROEPITROCHLEARIS MUSCLE; CHONDROFASCIALIS MUSCLE; HUMAN; INFRACLAVICULARIS MUSCLE; LATERAL PECTORAL NERVE; MEDIAL PECTORAL NERVE; MEDIAN NERVE; MUSCLE INNERVATION; NERVE; NERVE FIBER; PECTORAL MUSCLE; PECTORAL NERVE; PECTORALIS MAJOR MUSCLE; PECTORALIS MINIMUS MUSCLE; PECTORALIS MINOR MUSCLE; PECTORALIS QUARTUS MUSCLE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RADIAL NERVE; REVIEW; SENSORY NERVE; SKELETAL MUSCLE; STERNAL MUSCLE; STERNOCLAVICULARIS MUSCLE; SURGICAL ANATOMY; TENDON; THORACOACROMIAL ARTERY; ULNAR NERVE;

BRACHIAL PLEXUS; CADAVER; HUMANS; PECTORALIS MUSCLES; THORACIC NERVES;

EID: 84861800926     PISSN: 08973806     EISSN: 10982353     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ca.21301     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. Afshar M, Golalipour MJ,. 2005. Innervation of muscular axillary arch by a branch from pectoral loop. Int J Morphol 23: 279-280.
2. Aggarwal A, Harjeet K, Sahni D, Aggarwal A,. 2009. Bilateral multiple complex variations in the formation and branching pattern of brachial plexus. Surg Radiol Anat 31: 723-731.
3. Aggarwal A, Puri N, Aggarwal AK, Harjeet K, Sahni D,. 2010. Anatomical variation in formation of brachial plexus and its branching. Surg Radiol Anat 32: 891-894.
4. Aiyama S., 1973. Cutaneous branches of the so-called caudal pectorial nerve in man. Kaibogaku Zasshi 48: 179-201.
5. Akita K, Kawashima T, Shimokawa T, Sato K, Sato T,. 2002. Cutaneous nerve to the subacromial region originating from the lateral pectoral nerve. Ann Anat 184: 15-19.
6. Arican RY, Coskun N, Sarikcioglu L, Sindel M, Oguz N,. 2006. Co-existence of the pectoralis quartus and pectoralis intermedius muscles. Morphologie 90: 157-159.
7. Ariyan S,. 1979. The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap. A versatile flap for reconstruction in the head and neck. Plast Reconstr Surg 63: 73-81.
8. Arnold PG, Pairolero PC,. 1979. Use of pectoralis major muscle flaps to repair defects of anterior chest wall. Plast Reconstr Surg 63: 205-213.
9. Aszmann OC, Dellon AL, Birely BT, McFarland EG,. 1996. Innervation of the human shoulder joint and its implications for surgery. Clin Orthop Relat Res 330: 202-207.
10. Aszmann OC, Rab M, Kamolz L, Frey M,. 2000. The anatomy of the pectoral nerves and their significance in brachial plexus reconstruction. J Hand Surg Am 25: 942-947.
11. Baek SM, Lawson W, Biller HF,. 1982. An analysis of 133 pectoralis major myocutaneous flaps. Plast Reconstr Surg 69: 460-469.
12. Barcia JM, Genovés JM,. 2009. Chondrofascialis versus pectoralis quartus. Clin Anat 22: 871-872.
13. Barlow RN,. 1935. The sternalis muscle in American whites and negroes. Anat Rec 61: 413-426.
14. Bertelli JA,. 2007. Platysma motor branch transfer in brachial plexus repair: Report of the first case. J Brachial Plex Peripher Nerve Inj 2: 12.
15. Bird SJ, Brown MJ,. 1996. Acute focal neuropathy in male weight lifters. Muscle Nerve 19: 897-899.
16. Birmingham A,. 1889. Homology and innervation of the Achselbogen and pectoralis quartus, and the nature of the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thorax. J Anat Physiol 23: 206-223.
17. Blaauw G, Slooff AC,. 2003. Transfer of pectoral nerves to the musculocutaneous nerve in obstetric upper brachial plexus palsy. Neurosurgery 53: 338-342.
18. Bonastre V, Rodríguez-Niedenführ M, Choi D, Sañudo JR,. 2002. Coexistence of a pectoralis quartus muscle and an unusual axillary arch: Case report and review. Clin Anat 15: 366-370.
19. Brandt KE, Mackinnon SE,. 1993. A technique for maximizing biceps recovery in brachial plexus reconstruction. J Hand Surg Am 18: 726-733.
20. Bryce TH,. 1899. Note on a group of varieties of the pectoral sheet of muscle. J Anat Physiol 34: 75-78.
21. Cabrolius B,. 1604. Anatomes elenchus accuratissimu. Geneva. Obs. 8, p 96.
22. Chomiak J, Dungl P,. 2008. Reconstruction of elbow flexion in arthrogryposis multiplex congenita type I. Part I: Surgical anatomy and vascular and nerve supply of the pectoralis major muscle as a basis for muscle transfer. J Child Orthop 2: 357-364.
23. Chuang DC,. 1995. Neurotization procedures for brachial plexus injuries. Hand Clin 11: 633-645.
24. Clason E,. 1869. Om muskelanomalier. Upsala Läkareforenings Förhandlingar 2: 419-420.
25. Corten EM, Schellekens PP, Bleys RL, Kon M,. 2003. The nerve supply to the clavicular part of the pectoralis major muscle: An anatomical study and clinical application of the function-preserving pectoralis major island flap. Plast Reconstr Surg 112: 969-975.
26. Cunha-Gomes D, Choudhari C, Kavarana NM,. 2003. Vascular compromise of the pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction. Ann Plast Surg 51: 450-454.
27. Cunnick GH, Upponi S, Wishart GC,. 2001. Anatomical variants of the intercostobrachial nerve encountered during axillary dissection. Breast 10: 160-162.
28. Cunningham DJ,. 1888. The musculus sternalis. J Anat Physiol 22: 391-407.
29. David S, Balaguer T, Baque P, Lebreton E,. 2010. Transfer of pectoral nerves to suprascapular and axillary nerves: An anatomic feasibility study. J Hand Surg Am 35: 92-96.
30. DePalma AF,. 2008. Origin and comparative anatomy of the pectoral limb. Clin Orthop Relat Res 466: 531-542.
31. Diogo R, Abdala V, Aziz MA, Lonergan N, Wood BA,. 2009. From fish to modern humans-Comparative anatomy, homologies and evolution of the pectoral and forelimb musculature. J Anat 214: 694-716.
32. Dubreuil-Chambardel L,. 1926. De l'innervation de quelques muscles de la région thoracique. Bull Mem Soc Anthropol Paris 7: 121-125.
33. Du Puy CT,. 1726. Historie de l'Acad. Amsterdam: Royale des Sciences.
34. Eisler P,. 1912. Die Muskeln des Stammes. In:, von Bardeleben K, editor. Handbuch der Anatomie des Menschen Bd2,Ab2,T1. Jena: Gustav Fischer. p 475-477.
35. Fazan V, Amadeu A, Calaffi A, Felio C,. 2001. Brachial plexus variations in its formation and main branches. Acta Cirurgica Brasileisa 18: 14-18.
36. Flaherty G, O'Neill MN, Folan-Curran J,. 1999. Case report: Bilateral occurrence of a chondroepitrochlearis muscle. J Anat 194: 313-315.
37. Foerster O,. 1934. Die hriegsschadigungen der peripheren nerven. In: von Schjening, editor. O Handbuch der arztlichen erfahrungen un weltkrieg 1914/1918. Vol 4. Leipzig: Johann Ambrosius Barth. p 235-332.
38. Freeman SR, Washington SJ, Pritchard T, Barr L, Baildam AD, Bundred NJ,. 2003. Long term results of a randomised prospective study of preservation of the intercostobrachial nerve. Eur J Surg Oncol 29: 213-215.
39. Gardetto A, Thaler C, Kiechl S, Maurer H, Piza-Katzer H,. 2003. Isolated compression of the pectoral nerve resulting in atrophy of the major pectoral muscle. Muscle Nerve 28: 760-763.
40. Georgiev GP, Jelev L, Surchev L,. 2007. Axillary arch in Bulgarian population: Clinical significance of the arches. Clin Anat 20: 286-291.
41. Georgiev GP, Jelev L,. 2008. A rare case of unilateral chondroepitrochlearis muscle. Compt Rend Acad Bulg Sci 61: 1481-1484.
42. Gonçalves Ade V, Teixeira LC, Torresan R, Alvarenga C, Cabello C,. 2009. Randomized clinical trial on the preservation of the medial pectoral nerve following mastectomy due to breast cancer: Impact on upper limb rehabilitation. Sao Paulo Med J 127: 117-121.
43. Gousheh J, Arasteh E,. 2010. Upper limb functional restoration in old and complete brachial plexus paralysis. J Hand Surg Eur Vol 35: 16-22.
44. Gruber W,. 1860. Die supernumeraren Brustmuskeln des Menschen. Mem Acad Imp Sci St Petersburg 3: 1-10.
45. Gupta M, Goyal N, Harjeet,. 2005. Anomalous communications in the branches of brachial plexus. J Anat Soc India 54: 22-25.
46. Hansasuta A, Tubbs RS, Grabb PA,. 2001. Surgical relationship of the medial pectoral nerve to the musculocutaneous nerve: A cadaveric study. Neurosurgery 48: 203-207.
47. Harish K, Gopinath KS,. 2003. Sternalis muscle: Importance in surgery of the breast. Surg Radiol Anat 25: 311-314.
48. Harris W,. 1904. The true form of the brachial plexus, and its motor distribution. J Anat Physiol 38: 399-422.
49. Hirasawa K,. 1931. Untersuchungen über das periphere Nervensystem, Plexus brachialis und die Nerven der oberen Extremität. Arb Anat Inst Kaiserlichen Univ Kyoto A2: 135-136.
50. Hoffman GW, Elliott LF,. 1987. The anatomy of the pectoral nerves and its significance to the general and plastic surgeon. Ann Surg 205: 504-507.
51. Holtmann B, Wray RC, Lowrey R, Weeks P,. 1975. Restoration of elbow flexion. Hand 7: 256-261.
52. Hosseinian MA, Tofigh AM,. 2008. Cross pectoral nerve transfer following free gracilis muscle transplantation for chronic brachial plexus palsy: A case series. Int J Surg 6: 125-128.
53. Hovelacque A,. 1927. Anatomie des nerfs craniens et rachidiens et du système grand sympathique. Paris: Librairie Octave Doin. p 407-413.
54. Huntington GS,. 1904. The derivation and significance of certain supernumerary muscles of the pectoral region. J Anat Physiol 39: 1-68.
55. Ingalls NW,. 1913. Musculi sternales and infraclavicularis. Anat Rec 7: 203-206.
56. Jaijesh P,. 2005. Unilateral appearance of a chondro-epitrochlearis muscle-A case report. Indian J Plast Surg 38: 164-166.
57. Jelev L, Georgiev GP, Surchev L,. 2007. Axillary arch in human: Common morphology and variety. Definition of "clinical" axillary arch and its classification. Ann Anat 189: 473-481.
58. Johnson EO, Vekris M, Demesticha T, Soucacos PN,. 2010. Neuroanatomy of the brachial plexus: Normal and variant anatomy of its formation. Surg Radiol Anat 32: 291-297.
59. Kerr AT,. 1918. The brachial plexus of nerves in man, the variations in its formation and branches. Am J Anat 23: 285-395.
60. Klepps SJ, Goldfarb C, Flatow E, Galatz LM, Yamaguchi K,. 2001. Anatomic evaluation of the subcoracoid pectoralis major transfer in human cadavers. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 10: 453-459.
61. Kline DG,. 2000. Comment on Samardzic M, Rasulic L, Grujicic D, Milicic B. 2000. Results of nerve transfers to the musculocutaneous and axillary nerves. Neurosurgery 46: 103.
62. Kline DG,. 2001. Comment on Hansasuta A, Tubbs RS, Grabb PA. 2001. Surgical relationship of the medial pectoral nerve to the musculocutaneous nerve: A cadaveric study. Neurosurgery 48: 207.
63. Kline DG,. 2003. Comment on Blaauw G, Slooff AC. 2003. Transfer of pectoral nerves to the musculocutaneous nerve in obstetric upper brachial plexus palsy. Neurosurgery 53: 342.
64. Kodama K, Kawai K, Okamoto K, Yamada M,. 1987. Innervation of the pectoral muscles by the lateral cutaneous branch of the first intercostals nerve. Med Biol 114: 229-233.
65. Landry SO Jr,. 1958. The phylogenetic significance of the chondro-epitrochlearis muscle and its accompanying pectoral abnormalities. J Anat 92: 57-61.
66. Layeeque R, Hochberg J, Siegel E, Kunkel K, Kepple J, Henry-Tillman RS, Dunlap M, Seibert J, Klimberg VS,. 2004. Botulinum toxin infiltration for pain control after mastectomy and expander reconstruction. Ann Surg 240: 608-614.
67. Le Double AF,. 1897. Traité des Variations du Système Musculaire de l'Homme, Tome I. Paris: Schleicher Frères. p 194-286.
68. Lee KS,. 2007. Anatomic variation of the spinal origins of lateral and medial pectoral nerves. Clin Anat 20: 915-918.
69. Lin C,. 1988. Contracture of the chondroepitrochlearis and the axillary arch muscles. A case report. J Bone Joint Surg Am 70: 1404-1406.
70. Linell EA,. 1921. The distribution of nerves in the upper limb, with reference to variabilities and their clinical significance J Anat 55: 79-112.
71. Litts CS, Hennigan SP, Williams GR,. 2000. Medial and lateral pectoral nerve injury resulting in recurrent scapular winging after pectoralis major transfer: A case report. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 9: 347-349.
72. Lo YL, Prakash KM, Leoh TH, Tan YE, Dan YF, Ratnagopal P,. 2005. Pectoral nerve conduction studies: Technique in healthy subjects and evaluation of brachial plexopathy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86: 1702-1705.
73. Lo Cascio G,. 1914. Contribution à la morphologie de l'arc axillaire de Langer. Arch Ital Biol 62: 285.
74. Lopchinsky RA,. 2004. Locating the axillary vein and preserving the medial pectoral nerve. Am J Surg 188: 193-194.
75. Lorei MP, Hershman EB,. 1993. Peripheral nerve injuries in athletes. Treatment and prevention. Sports Med 16: 130-147.
76. Loukas M, Bowers M, Hullett J,. 2004. Sternalis muscle: A mystery still. Folia Morphol 63: 147-149.
77. Loukas M, Louis RG Jr, Kwiatkowska M,. 2005. Chondroepitrochlearis muscle, a case report and a suggested revision of the current nomenclature. Surg Radiol Anat 27: 354-356.
78. Loukas M, Louis RG Jr, Fitzsimmons J, Colborn G,. 2006a. The surgical anatomy of the ansa pectoralis. Clin Anat 19: 685-693.
79. Loukas M, Louis RG Jr, Fogg QA, Hallner B, Gupta AA,. 2006b. An unusual innervation of pectoralis minor and major muscles from a branch of the intercostobrachial nerve. Clin Anat 19: 347-349.
80. Loukas M, Hullett J, Louis RG Jr, Holdman S, Holdman D,. 2006c. The gross anatomy of the extrathoracic course of the intercostobrachial nerve. Clin Anat 19: 106-111.
81. Loukas M, Grabska J, Tubbs RS, Louis RG Jr,. 2007. An unusual union of the intercostobrachial and medial pectoral nerve. Folia Morphol 66: 356-359.
82. Loukas M, Noordeh N, Tubbs RS, Jordan R,. 2009. Variation of the axillary arch muscle with multiple insertions. Singapore Med J 50: e88-e90.
83. Lurje A,. 1948. Concerning surgical treatment of traumatic injury of the upper division of the brachial plexus (Erb's-type). Ann Surg 127: 317-326.
84. Macalister A,. 1875. Additional observations on muscular anomalies in human anatomy with a catalogue of the principal muscular variations hitherto published (third series). Trans Roy Irish Acad Sci 25: 1-134.
85. Macchi V, Tiengo C, Porzionato A, Parenti A, Stecco C, Mazzoleni F, De Caro R,. 2007a. Medial and lateral pectoral nerves: Course and branches. Clin Anat 20: 157-162.
86. Macchi V, Tiengo C, Porzionato A, Parenti A, Stecco C, Bassetto F, Scapinelli R, Taglialavoro G, De Caro R,. 2007b. Musculocutaneous nerve: Histotopographic study and clinical implications. Clin Anat 20: 400-406.
87. Malessy MJ, Thomeer RT, van Dijk JG,. 1998. Changing central nervous system control following intercostal nerve transfer. J Neurosurg 89: 568-574.
88. Manktelow RT, McKee NH, Vettese T,. 1980. An anatomical study of the pectoralis major muscle as related to functioning free muscle transplantation. Plast Reconstr Surg 65: 610-615.
89. Marrero JL, Goldfine LJ,. 1989. Isolated lateral pectoral nerve injury: Trauma from a seat belt. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 70: 239-240.
90. Maxwell GP, Tornambe R,. 1988. Management of mammary subpectoral implant distortion. Clin Plast Surg 15: 601-611.
91. McGillicuddy JE,. 2000. Comment on Samardzic M, Rasulic L, Grujicic D, Milicic B. 2000. Results of nerve transfers to the musculocutaneous and axillary nerves. Neurosurgery 46: 103.
92. McGillicuddy JE,. 2001. Comment on Hansasuta A, Tubbs RS, Grabb PA. 2001. Surgical relationship of the medial pectoral nerve to the musculocutaneous nerve: A cadaveric study. Neurosurgery 48: 207.
93. Mehrhof AI Jr, Rosenstock A, Neifeld JP, Merritt WH, Theogaraj SD, Cohen IK,. 1983. The pectoralis major myocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction. Analysis of complications. Am J Surg 146: 478-482.
94. Mérida-Velasco JR, Rodríguez Vázquez JF, Mérida Velasco JA, Sobrado Pérez J, Jiménez Collado J,. 2003. Axillary arch: Potential cause of neurovascular compression syndrome. Clin Anat 16: 514-519.
95. Merrell GA, Barrie KA, Katz DL, Wolfe SW,. 2001. Results of nerve transfer techniques for restoration of shoulder and elbow function in the context of a meta-analysis of the English literature. J Hand Surg Am 26: 303-314.
96. Merson M, Pirovano C, Balzarini A, Luini A, Biasi S, Galimberti V, Genitoni V, Muscolino G, Veronesi P,. 1992. The preservation of minor pectoralis muscle in axillary dissection for breast cancer: Functional and cosmetic evaluation. Eur J Surg Oncol 18: 215-218.
97. Millesi H,. 1991. Brachial plexus injury in adults: Operative repair. In:, Gelberman RH, editor. Operative Nerve Repair and Reconstruction. Vol 2. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott. p 1285-1301.
98. Mondelli M, Cioni R, Federico A,. 1998. Rare mononeuropathies of the upper limb in bodybuilders. Muscle Nerve 21: 809-812.
99. Moosman DA,. 1980. Anatomy of the pectoral nerves and their preservation in modified mastectomy. Am J Surg 139: 883-886.
100. Morita M., 1944. Observations of the musculus sternalis and musculi pectorals in mammals and a morphological interpretation of the essence of the musculus sternalis. Acta Anat Japon 22: 357-366.
101. Mosconi T, Kamath S,. 2003. Bilateral asymmetric deficiency of the pectoralis major muscle. Clin Anat 16: 346-349.
102. Muscolino G, Leo E, Sacchini V, Bedini AV, Luini A,. 1988. Resectable breast cancer: Axillary dissection sparing pectoralis muscles and nerves. Eur J Surg Oncol 14: 429-433.
103. Nacarküçük E, Ertekin C,. 2004. Lateral pectoral nerve conduction. Int J Neurosci 114: 451-458.
104. Narakas AO,. 1987. Thoughts on neurotization or nerve transfers in irreparable nerve lesions. In:, Terzis JK, editor. Microreconstruction of Nerve Injuries. Philadelphia: WB Saunders Co. p 447-454.
105. Narakas AO, Hentz VR,. 1988. Neurotization in brachial plexus injuries: Indication and results. Clin Orthop 237: 43-56.
106. Narakas AO,. 1991. Neurotization in the treatment of brachial plexus injuries. In:, Gelberman RH, editor. Operative Nerve Repair and Reconstruction. Vol 2. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott. p 1329-1358.
107. Natsis K, Vlasis K, Totlis T, Paraskevas G, Noussios G, Skandalakis P, Koebke J,. 2010. Abnormal muscles that may affect axillary lymphadenectomy: Surgical anatomy. Breast Cancer Res Treat 120: 77-82.
108. Novak CB, Mackinnon SE,. 2004. Treatment of a proximal accessory nerve injury with nerve transfer. Laryngoscope 114: 1482-1484.
109. Park TS,. 2009. Medial pectoral nerve transfer. J Neurosurg Pediatr 3: 345-347.
110. Pellerin M, Kimball Z, Tubbs RS, Nguyen S, Matusz P, Cohen-Gadol AA, Loukas M,. 2010. The prefixed and postfixed brachial plexus: A review with surgical implications. Surg Radiol Anat 32: 251-260.
111. Perrin JB,. 1871. Notes of some variations of the pectoralis major, with its associated muscles. J Anat Physiol 5: 233-244.
112. Princeteau L., 1892. Note pour server a l'histoire des anomalies musculaires du creux de l'aisselle. C R Hebd Seane Mem Soc Biol 44: 202-206.
113. Resch H, Povacz P, Ritter E, Matschi W,. 2000. Transfer of the pectoralis major muscle for the treatment of irreparable rupture of the subscapularis tendon. J Bone Joint Surg Am 82: 372-382.
114. Richardson PM,. 1997. Recovery of biceps function after delayed repair for brachial plexus injury. J Trauma 42: 791-792.
115. Rossi F, Triggs WJ, Gonzalez R, Shafer SJ,. 1999. Bilateral medial pectoral neuropathy in a weight lifter. Muscle Nerve 22: 1597-1599.
116. Ruge G,. 1914. Der Hautrumpfmuskel des Menschen. Morph Jb 47: 677-682.
117. Sakuma E, Omi K, Takeda N, Hasegawa H, Mori K, Mabuchi Y, Soji T,. 2007. Bilaterally existing sternoclavicularis anticus muscles. Anat Sci Int 82: 237-241.
118. Samardzic M, Antunovic V, Joksimovic M, Bacetic D,. 1986. Donor nerves in the reinnervation of brachial plexus. Neurol Res 8: 117-122.
119. Samardzic M, Grujicic D, Antunovic V,. 1992. Nerve transfer in brachial plexus traction injuries. J Neurosurg 76: 191-197.
120. Samardzic M, Rasulic L, Grujicic D, Milicic B,. 2000. Results of nerve transfers to the musculocutaneous and axillary nerves. Neurosurgery 46: 93-103.
121. Samardzic M, Grujicic D, Rasulic L, Bacetic D,. 2002. Transfer of the medial pectoral nerve: Myth or reality? Neurosurgery 50: 1277-1282.
122. Samuel VP, Vollala VR,. 2008. Unusual pectoralis major muscle: The chondroepitrochlearis. Anat Sci Int 83: 277-279.
123. Sarikcioglu L, Yildirim FB, Chiba S,. 2004. Unilateral occurrence of a chondroepitrochlearis muscle. Clin Anat 17: 272-275.
124. Scanlon EF,. 1981. The importance of the anterior thoracic nerves in modified radical mastectomy. Surg Gynecol Obstet 152: 789-791.
125. Schumacher S von,. 1908. Zur Kenntnis der segmentalen (insbesondere motorischen) Innervation der oberen Extremitat des Menschen. Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien 117: 131-209.
126. Sefa Özel M, Özel L, Toros SZ, Marur T, Yildirim Z, Erdoǧdu E, Kara M, Titiz IM,. 2011. Denervation point for neuromuscular blockade on lateral pectoral nerves: A cadaver study. Surg Radiol Anat 33: 105-108.
127. Serra GE, Maccarone GB, Ibarra PE, de la Fuente R,. 1984. Lateral pectoralis nerve: The need to preserve it in the modified radical mastectomy. J Surg Oncol 26: 278-281.
128. Shajan K, Kg MR, Krishnaswamy N, Sn S,. 2009. Unilateral axillary arch with two slips entrapping neurovascular bundle in axilla and its innervation by the median nerve. Int J Anat Var 2: 113-115.
129. Shinohara H,. 1996. Does the nerve supply to both the superficial and deep surfaces of pectoralis major imply two separate developmental origins? J Anat 188: 263-268.
130. Singhal S, Rao VV, Ravindranath R,. 2007. Variations in brachial plexus and the relationship of median nerve with the axillary artery: A case report. J Brachial Plex Peripher Nerve Inj 2: 21-25.
131. Sinha A, Higginson DW, Vickers A,. 1999. Use of botulinum A toxin in irreducible shoulder dislocation caused by spasm of pectoralis major. J Shoulder Elbow Surg 8: 75-76.
132. Socolovsky MP, Bertelli JA, Masi GD, Campero A, Garategui L, Conesa H, Ghizoni MF,. 2008. Surgical anatomy of the platysma motor branch as a donor for transfer in brachial plexus repair. Surg Radiol Anat 30: 669-674.
133. Solomon LB, Ravindranath N, Vidic B, Dym M,. 1997. Anatomical variant of the lateral pectoral nerve innervating the anterior portion of the deltoid muscle: A case report. Anat Rec 249: 506-509.
134. Soni S, Rath G, Suri R, Kumar H,. 2008. Anomalous pectoral musculature. Anat Sci Int 83: 310-313.
135. Spinner RJ, Carmichael SW, Spinner M,. 1991. Infraclavicular ulnar nerve entrapment due to a chondroepitrochlearis muscle. J Hand Surg Br 16: 315-317.
136. Stecco C, Porzionato A, Macchi V, Stecco A, Vigato E, Parenti A, Delmas V, Aldegheri R, De Caro R,. 2008. The expansions of the pectoral girdle muscles onto the brachial fascia: Morphological aspects and spatial disposition. Cells Tissues Organs 188: 320-329.
137. Stecco A, Macchi V, Masiero S, Porzionato A, Tiengo C, Stecco C, Delmas V, De Caro R,. 2009. Pectoral and femoral fasciae: Common aspects and regional specializations. Surg Radiol Anat 31: 35-42.
138. Steindler A,. 1983. The classic. The biology of functional restoration. Clin Orthop Relat Res 177: 4-8.
139. Stockinger T, Aszmann OC, Frey M,. 2008. Clinical application of pectoral nerve transfers in the treatment of traumatic brachial plexus injuries. J Hand Surg Am 33: 1100-1107.
140. Strandberg A,. 1914. Sur l'innervation du muscle présternal. Bibliographie Anatomique XXIV: 180-203.
141. Testut L,. 1884. Les anomalies musculaires chez l'homme expliquées par l'Anatomie Comparée et leur importance en Anthropologie. Paris: Masson. p 7-118.
142. Tiel RL, Kline DG,. 2002. Comment on Samardzic M, Grujicic D, Rasulic L, Bacetic D. 2002. Transfer of the medial pectoral nerve: Myth or reality? Neurosurgery 50: 1282.
143. Tobin GR,. 1985. Pectoralis major segmental anatomy and segmentally split pectoralis major flaps. Plast Reconstr Surg 75: 814-824.
144. Tobler L,. 1902. Der Aschelbogen des Menschen, ein Rudiment des Panniculus carnosus der Mammalier. Morph J 30: 453-507.
145. Tomaino MM,. 2002. Neurophysiologic and clinical outcome following medial pectoral to long thoracic nerve transfer for scapular winging: A case report. Microsurgery 22: 254-257.
146. Torresan RZ, Cabello C, Conde DM, Brenelli HB,. 2003. Impact of the preservation of the intercostobrachial nerve in axillary lymphadenectomy due to breast cancer. Breast J 9: 389-392.
147. Tötösy de Zepetnek JE, Zung HV, Erdebil S, Gordon T,. 1992. Innervation ratio is an important determinant of force in normal and reinnervated rat tibialis anterior muscles. J Neurophysiol 67: 1385-1403.
148. Tubbs RS, Jones VL, Loukas M, Cömert A, Shoja MM, Wellons JC III, Cohen-Gadol AA,. 2010. Anatomy and landmarks for branches of the brachial plexus: A vade mecum. Surg Radiol Anat 32: 261-270.
149. Turgut HB, Anil A, Peker T, Barut C,. 2000. Insertion abnormality of bilateral pectoralis minimus. Surg Radiol Anat 22: 55-57.
150. Umesue Y, Osibuti M,. 1942. Drei Falle von Seltsamen Muskelvarietaten an der vorderen Brustwand. Acta Anat Nippon 20: 27-34.
151. Van Heest A, Waters PM, Simmons BP,. 1998. Surgical treatment of arthrogryposis of the elbow. J Hand Surg Am 23: 1063-1070.
152. Vulpius O, Stoffel S,. 1920. Orthopadische operationslehre. Stuttgart: Ferdinand Enke.
153. Wagenseil F,. 1937. Untersuchungen über die Muskulatur der Chinesen. Zeitschr Morphol Anthropol 36: 39-150.
154. Wellons JC, Tubbs RS, Pugh JA, Bradley NJ, Law CR, Grabb PA,. 2009. Medial pectoral nerve to musculocutaneous nerve neurotization for the treatment of persistent birth-related brachial plexus palsy: An 11-year institutional experience. J Neurosurg Pediatr 3: 348-353.
155. Wilson JT,. 1888. The innervation of axillary muscular arches in man, with remarks on their homology. J Anat Physiol 22: 294-299.
156. Wilson JT,. 1889. Further observations on the innervation of axillary muscles in man. J Anat Physiol 24: 52-60.
157. Withers EH, Franklin JD, Madden JJ, Lynch JB,. 1981. Immediate reconstruction of the pharynx and cervical esophagus with the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap following laryngopharyngectomy. Plast Reconstr Surg 68: 898-904.
158. Wood J,. 1866. Variations in human myology observed during the winter session of 1865-66 at King's College, London. Proc R Soc Lond B 15: 230-239.
159. Wood MB, Murray PM,. 2007. Heterotopic nerve transfers: Recent trends with expanding indication. J Hand Surg Am 32: 397-408.
160. Yüksel M, Yüksel E, Sürücü S,. 1996. An axillary arch. Clin Anat 9: 252-254.
161. Yap SE,. 1921. Musculus sternalis in Filipinos. Anat Rec 21: 353-371.