The slave next door: Human trafficking and slavery in America today

The Slave Next Door: Human Trafficking and Slavery in America Today

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages

  Bales, Kevin ^a   Soodalter, Ron ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF HULL   (United Kingdom)

^b Abraham Lincoln Institute   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 84861796852     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

References (417)

1. "Girl Reunited with Parents," Laredo Morning Times, May 17, 2001.
2. "Woman Sentenced to Life in Prison for Torturing 12-Year-Old Maid," Amarillo Globe News, October 20, 2001.
3. U.S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, June 2006, www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2006/.
4. U.S. Department of Justice, Attorney General's Annual Report to Congress on U.S. Government Activities to Combat Trafficking in Persons for Fiscal Year 2006, May 2007, www.usdoj.gov/olp/human_trafficking.htm, 17. Other cases were brought by Immigration and Customs Enforcement.
5. Only one man in U.S. history, a Portland, Maine, sea captain named Nathaniel Gordon, was ever hanged as a slaver, despite the fact that slave trading- sailing to Africa, loading your hold with captives, and selling them in America, Cuba, or Brazil-had been made a capital offense by the Piracy Act of 1820. Thousands of slave ships sailed to Africa with impunity, as the government and the navy looked the other way, and the courts did practically nothing to enforce the slave trade laws. Not until the election of Abraham Lincoln and the advent of the Civil War was an attempt made to exact the death penalty for this crime that had led directly to the deaths of millions. For the complete story, see Ron Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon: The Life and Trial of an American Slave Trader (New York: Atria, 2006).
6. Jacqueline Jones, The Dispossessed: America's Underclasses from the Civil War to the Present (New York: Basic Books, 1992), 107.
7. Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, "Case Study," available from LIRS, 700 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230.
8. Slavery is a patterned relationship that achieves exploitative ends including appropriation of labor for productive activities resulting in economic gain, use of the enslaved person as an item of conspicuous consumption, sexual use of an enslaved person for pleasure and procreation, and the savings gained when paid servants or workers are replaced with unpaid and unfree workers. Any particular slave may fulfill one, several, or all of these outcomes for the slaveholder. Slavery is a relationship between two people. It is both a social and economic relationship, and like all relationships it has certain characteristics and rules. The key characteristics of slavery are not about ownership but about how people are controlled. T he core characteristic of slavery throughout history, whether it was legal or not, is violence. The slave master or slaveholder controls a slave by using or threatening violence. Slavery is about having no choices at all, having no control over your life, and living in constant fear of violence. This is the key to slavery. Violence brings a person into slavery. Many people who become slaves are tricked into it. Many people, following a trail of lies, walk into enslavement, but what keeps them there is violence. Once enslaved, there are all sorts of ways that slaves are held in slavery-sometimes it is the way the slave gives up and gives into slavery, sometimes it is about the personal relationships that develop between slaves and slaveholders-but the essential ingredient is violence. The second key characteristic of slavery is loss of free will; slaves are under the complete control of someone else. There is no other person, authority, or government the slave can turn to for protection. Slaves must do as they are told or they will suffer. The third characteristic is that slavery is normally used to exploit someone in some kind of economic activity. No one enslaves another person just to be mean; people are enslaved to make a profit. Most slaveholders see themselves as normal businesspeople. They have little interest in hurting anyone, in being cruel or torturing people; it is just part of the job. Slavery is about money. If we put these characteristics together we can define slavery in this way: Slavery is a social and economic relationship in which a person is controlled through violence or its threat, paid nothing, and economically exploited. Slavery has been defined in many ways-within the social sciences and history, as well as in legal and international instruments. Many of these definitions vary significantly from each other. Kevin Bales and Peter Robbins explore the development of many of these definitions in "No One Shall Be Held in Slavery or Servitude: A Critical Analysis of International Slavery Agreements," Human Rights Review 2 (January 2001): 18-45.
9. Free the Slaves and Human Rights Center, University of California, Berkeley, Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the United States (Washington, DC: Free the Slaves, 2005).
10. Ben Schmitt and Suzette Hackney, "Sex Ring Busted by Kidnapped Girl's Tip," Detroit Free Press, January 15, 2003; Suzette Hackney, "Abducted Teen's Mother Describes House of Horrors," Detroit Free Press, January 16, 2003; Suzette Hackney, "More Sex Ring Arrests Likely Today," Detroit Free Press, February 4, 2003; Ben Schmitt, "More Charges in Sex Ring," Detroit Free Press, February 15, 2003; Suzette Hackney, "Man Sentenced in Sex-Ring Case," Detroit Free Press, September 16, 2003.
11. Deborah J. Daniels, "Remarks of the Honorable Deborah J. Daniels, Assistant Attorney General, Office of Justice Programs, at the National Conference on Human Trafficking, July 15, 2004, Tampa, Florida," www.ojp.usdoj.gov/aag/speeches/ncht.htm. It is not clear whether Ms. Daniels was referring to the proportion of cases known to and prosecuted by the U.S. government or to all cases in the United States.
12. The great majority of household slaves in America are young women, so we will usually refer to enslaved domestics as "her" and "she."
13. Free the Slaves and Human Rights Center, University of California at Berkeley, Hidden Slaves: Forced Labor in the United States (Washington, DC: Free the Slaves, 2004) (can be downloaded at www.freetheslaves.net).
14. The story of Ruth Gnizako was related by Joy M. Zarembka in "America's Dirty Work: Migrant Maids and Modern-Day Slavery," in Global Woman: Nannies, Maids, and Sex Workers in the New Economy, ed. Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Russell Hochschild (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2002), 143-53. Joy Zarembka is the director of the Break the Chain Campaign in Washington, DC. For more information about that organization's work for migrant domestic worker rights, visit www.ips-dc.org/campaign/index.htm.
15. "A Slavery Case Nears Hearing in Manhattan: Servant Accuses Kuwaiti Diplomat," New York Sun, August 10, 2004.
16. Quoted in Melissa Dittmann, "What Makes Good People Do Bad Things?" Monitor on Psychology 35 (October 2004): 68.
17. "Indonesian Received Less Than $2 a Day, Authorities Say," Associated Press, July 28, 2006, www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4080380/.
18. "Wisconsin Couple Convicted on Human Trafficking Charges," U.S. Newswire, May 27, 2006.
19. U.S. Department of Justice, "Two Milwaukee Doctors Each Sentenced to Four Years in Prison for Forcing Woman to Work as Domestic Servant for 19 Years," press release, November 16, 2006, www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/2006/November/06_crt_772.html.
20. "Man Sentenced to 16 Months in Prison in Human Trafficking Case," Associated Press, May 12, 2006.
21. "Woman Sentenced to Probation in Human Trafficking Case," KGBT 4, May 12, 2006.
22. Florrie Burke, Human trafficking consultant, interview, December 21, 2007.
23. Frank Eltman, "NY Couple Convicted in Slavery Case," Associated Press, December 17, 2007.
24. Robert E. Kessler, "Muttontown Woman in Slave Case Sentenced to 11 Years," Newsday.com, June 27, 2008.
25. Frank Eltman, "Second NY Millionaire Convicted of Enslaving Indonesian Workers Sentenced to Prison Time," Associated Press, June 27, 2008.
26. U.S. State Department, "Report of the Visa Office 2007," Table XVIb, "Nonimmigrant Visas Issued by Classification," http://travel.state.gov/visa/frvi/statistics/statistics_1476.html.
27. Quoted in Helena Smith, "Slaves in the Land of the Free," New Statesman, September 9, 2002.
28. Briefly, four arguments can be made for denying diplomatic immunity in slavery cases: (1) slavery violates the Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, and no treaty can overcome the provisions of the Constitution; (2) slavery and trafficking are fundamentally commercial activities and thus not covered by the Vienna Convention; (3) slavery and trafficking laws and international agreements are accepted as jus cogens laws, norms that transcend and trump any other laws, including the treaty concerning diplomatic immunity; and (4) the U.S. Trafficking Victims Protection Act guarantees to all victims the right to pursue civil remedies. For further information, see Mani Kumari Sabbithi, Joaquina Quadros, and Gila Sixtina Fernandes, plaintiffs, v. Major Waleed KH N. S. Al Saleh, Maysaa KH A. O. A. Al Omar, and State of Kuwait, Case No. 07-CV-00115-EGS, U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, www.aclu.org/pdfs/womensrights/20070530sabbithioppositiontomotiontodis-miss.pdf.
29. Quoted in Frank Langfitt, "Servants: Diplomat Held Us as Suburban 'Slaves,'" National Public Radio, March 1, 2007, www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7626754.
30. "Congressional Briefing on Migrant Domestic Workers (Bill H.R. 3244: Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 1999)," testimony of Xiomara Salgado at the Campaign for Migrant Domestic Workers' Rights Public Briefing, Washington, DC, February 15, 2000, www.montgomerycountymd.gov/content/hhs/vasap/domesticworkerscongressionaltestimony.pdf.
31. Workers in social service agencies helping victims of trafficking and slavery told the authors of these tough choices. Most did not want to be identified with this complaint against government policy lest it threaten the resources they did receive.
32. Free the Slaves, Hidden Slaves.
33. "Christina: Narrative as Told to Peggy Callahan for Free the Slaves, February 24, 2005, Washington, DC," excerpted from "In Their Own Words: Christina Elangwe," interview, www.freetheslaves.net/NETCOMMUNITY/Page.aspx?pid=349&srcid=208, in To Plead Our Own Cause: Narratives of Modern Slavery, ed. Kevin Bales and Zoe Trodd (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2008).
34. Laura Germino, Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW), interview, January 6, 2007.
35. Greg Asbed, "Coalition of Immokalee Workers: '!Golpear a Uno Es Golpear a Todos!' To Beat One of Us Is to Beat Us All," in vol. 3 of Bringing Human Rights Home, ed. Cynthia Soohoo, Martha F. Davis, and Catherine Albisa (New York: Praeger, 2007), 1-24.
36. Lucas Benitez, CIW, interview, January 7, 2007.
37. Greg Asbed, CIW, interview, January 8, 2007.
38. Lucas Benitez, interview, January 7, 2007.
39. John Norris, U.S. DOL wage and hours inspector, Ft. Myers, FL, interview, March 28, 2007.
40. Greg Asbed, CIW, interview, January 8, 2007.
41. Oxfam America, "Like Machines in the Fields: Workers without Rights in American Agriculture," Report, March 2004, www.oxfamamerica.org/newsandpublications/publications/research_reports/art7011.html/OA-Like_Machines_in_the_Fields.pdf, 36.
42. Cindy Hahamovitch, The Fruits of Their Labor: Atlantic Coast Farmworkers and the Making of Migrant Poverty, 1870-1945 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), 123.
43. Dying to Leave, dir. Chris Hilton, "Wide Angle" special, PBS, 2003.
44. Antonio Martinez, CIW, interview, December 2, 2007.
45. Asbed "Golpear a Uno."
46. Laura Germino, interview, January 20, 2007.
47. Ron Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon: The Life and Trial of an American Slave Trader (New York: Atria Books, 2006), 254.
48. Lucas Benitez, interview, January 7, 2007.
49. Laura Germino, interview, February 2, 2007.
50. Greg Asbed, interview, January 8, 2007.
51. Lucas Benitez, interview, January 7, 2007.
52. Laura Germino, interview, January 6, 2007.
53. Asbed, "Golpear a Uno."
54. Laura Germino, interview, January 20, 2007.
55. Asbed, "Golpear a Uno."
56. Laura Germino, interview, January 6, 2007.
57. Greg Asbed, interview, January 8, 2007.
58. Allen Davies, formerly sergeant of the Hendry County, FL, Sheriff's Office, interview, February 14, 2007.
59. Mike Baron, formerly Border Patrol agent-in-charge, Pembroke Pines, FL, interview, March 27, 2007.
60. Laura Germino, interview, February 2, 2007.
61. Armando Brana, former U.S. DOL senior investigator, interview, April 3, 2007.
62. United States v. Miguel A. Flores, Sebastian Gomez, Andres Ixcoy, Nolasco Castaneda, indictment, Criminal No. 2:96-806, U.S. District Court of South Carolina, Charleston Division, October 10, 1996.
63. Transcript of sentencing hearing, Criminal No. 2:96-806, 59-60.
64. Armando Brana, interview, April 3, 2007.
65. Mike Baron, interview, March 27, 2007.
66. Laura Germino, interview, February 2, 2007.
67. Greg Asbed, interview, January 8, 2007.
68. Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon, 254.
69. "Labor Camps Kept Workers in Servitude with Crack Cocaine," Naples News, September 23, 2006.
70. "Labor Camp Owner Given 30 Years in Prison," Florida Times-Union, January 27, 2007.
71. CIW, "CIW Anti-Slavery Campaign," 2008, www.ciw-online.org/slavery.html.
72. Greg Asbed, interview, January 8, 2007.
73. Mike Baron, interview, March 27, 2007.
74. Laura Germino, interview, February 2, 2007.
75. Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon, 262.
76. "CIW, McDonald's, and Their Suppliers Reach Agreement to Improve Farmworkers Wages and Working Conditions," April 9, 2007, www.escr-net.org/news/news_show.htm?doc_id=483476.
77. Interview with Lucas Benitez, April 12, 2007.
78. "Statement from Burger King," February 7, 2007, www.namcnewswire.com/releases/content/view/845/2/.
79. Lucas Benitez, "CIW Response to Burger King Statement of 2/5/07," press release, February 6, 2007 (no longer available on the CIW Web site).
80. "Statement from Burger King."
81. "Burger King Pledges Cage-Free Food," New York Times, March 28, 2007.
82. Quoted in Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon, 262.
83. Amy Bennett Williams, "Burger King Puts Self on Grill," Ft. Myers News-Press, April 28, 2008.
84. Eric Schlosser, "Burger with a Side of Spies," New York Times, May 8, 2008.
85. "Brutal Farm Labor Bosses Punished, but Not the Growers Who Hire Them," Miami Herald, April 3 , 2007.
86. Lisa Butler, attorney with Legal Services, Florida Rural Legal Services, interview, March 1, 2007.
87. Dan Werner, legal director, Workers' Rights Law Center, interview, March 12, 2007.
88. Kevin O'Connor, U.S. attorney for the State of Connecticut and DOJ chief of staff, interview, April 2, 2007.
89. Michael Wishnie, clinical professor of law, Yale Law School, interview, March 13, 2007.
90. O'Connor, interview, April 2, 2007.
91. "Suit Charges That Nursery Mistreated Laborers," New York Times, February 8, 2007.
92. Kevin O'Connor, interview, April 2, 2007.
93. "Settlement Ends Workers' Suit," Hartford Courant, June 26, 2007.
94. Michael Wishnie, interview, July 24, 2008.
95. Kathleen Kim and Dan Werner, Civil Litigation on Behalf of Victims of Human Trafficking (Los Angeles: Legal Aid Foundation, 2005), www.lafla.org/clientservices/specialprojects/VictimsTrfficking0405.pdf.
96. U.S. DOJ, "Jury Convicts New Hampshire Couple of Forced Labor," press release, September 2, 2003.
97. Mary Bauer, "Close to Slavery: Guestworker Programs in the United States," report, Southern Poverty Law Center, 2007, www.splcenter.org/pdf/static/SPLCguestworker.pdf, 7.
98. Mary Bauer, director of Southern Poverty Law Center's Immigrant Justice Project, interview, July 23, 2008.
99. Bauer, "Close to Slavery," 42.
100. Complaint, Muangmol Asanok et al., Plaintiffs, v. Million Express Manpower, Inc. et al., Defendants, U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina, Western Division, Case 5:07-cv-00048-BO, filed February 12, 2007, 8.
101. Kate Woomer-Deters, staff attorney, Legal Aid of North Carolina, Farmworker Unit, interview, March 14, 2007.
102. Complaint, Asanok et al. v. Million Express Manpower et al., 1.
103. Kate Woomer-Deters, interview, March 14, 2007.
104. Mary Bauer, interview, March 16, 2007.
105. U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor, "GAO Investigation Finds Labor Department Not Effectively Fighting Wage Theft, Department Not Using All Its Tools to Collect Back Wages," press release, July 15, 2008.
106. "Wage Theft, Bush Style," People's Weekly World, July 23, 2008, www.pww.org/article/articleview/13416.
107. Bauer, "Close to Slavery," 28.
108. Mary Bauer, interview, March 16, 2007.
109. Patricia Medige, attorney, Colorado Legal Services, Migrant Farm Worker Division, interview, March 20, 2007.
110. See Moffat County Sheriff's Office, "Mission Statement" and "Vision Statement," 2007, www.moffatcountysheriff.com.
111. Kevin Bales and Steven Lize, "Trafficking in Persons in the United States: A Report to the National Institute of Justice," August 2005, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffilesi/nij/grants/211980.pdf, 140.
112. Patricia Medige, interview, March 20, 2007.
113. Mary Bauer, interview, March 16, 2007.
114. Bauer, "Close to Slavery," 41.
115. Laura Germino, interview, February 2, 2007.
116. Bauer, "Close to Slavery," 41.
117. Robert J. Allison, "The Origins of African-American Culture," Journal of Interdisciplinary History 30 (Winter 1999): 475-81.
118. Lutheran Immigration and Refugee Service, "Case Study #3," available from LIRS, 700 Light St., Baltimore, MD 21230. According to Annie Sovcik, staff attorney at LIRS, the "Maria" story is a composite of cases involving a few girls, whose histories were combined both to protect the individual victims and to educate various groups as to "how many potential opportunities there often are for identifying and rescuing victims that go unrealized."
119. Kevin O'Connor, U.S. attorney for Connecticut, interview, June 13, 2007.
120. Interestingly, prior to the Civil War, when slave trade cases were being heard in northern federal courts, a number of lawyers who made their living by defending accused slavers had been U.S. attorneys and assistant U.S. attorneys before going into private practice.
121. 18 U.S.C. § 1591.
122. The court ruled that for their personal safety only the first letter of the victims' last names would be used.
123. Alex Wood, "Ex-prostitute Describes Pimp's Domination, Violence," Journal Inquirer (Hartford, CT), June 6, 2007.
124. Lee Sawyer, "Defendant Denies His 'Escort Service' Was a Prostitution Ring," Journal Inquirer (Hartford, CT), June 13, 2007.
125. U.S. DOJ, "Tenth Defendant Found Guilty for Role in Human Trafficking Ring," press release, June 14, 2007, www.usdoj.gov/usao/ct/Press2007/20070614-3.html.
126. Assistant U.S. attorney Krishna R. Patel, interview, April 13, 2007.
127. Lois Lee, "The Pimp and His Game," unpublished paper written "in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in sociology/anthropology," 1979, 9; also Lois Lee, founder, Children of the Night, interview, July 23, 2007.
128. Krishna R. Patel, interview, April 13, 2007.
129. U.S. Attorney's Office, Department of Justice, State of Connecticut, to Diane Polan, Esq., representing Shamere McKenzie, August 22, 2007.
130. Dorchen Leidholdt, co-founder, Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, interview, October 8, 2007.
131. Rachel Lloyd, Girls Educational and Mentoring Services, interview, July 25, 2007.
132. Lois Lee, interview, July 23, 2007.
133. Ronald Weitzer, "The Social Construction of Sex Trafficking: Ideology and Institutionalization of a Moral Crusade," Politics and Society 35 (September 2007): 452.
134. Michael Shively et al., "Final Report on the Evaluation of the First Offender Prostitution Program," Abt Associates, March 7, 2008, www.ncjrs.gov/pdffilesi/nij/grants/222451.pdf.
135. Bradley Myles, "'The World Famous Players Ball' at-a-Glance," unpublished briefing document to Polaris, July 2005, 1.
136. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, "Sex Trafficking Fact Sheet," November 2004, www.acf.hhs.gov/trafficking/about/fact_sex.html.
137. "U.S. Must Link AIDS, Anti-Trafficking Efforts," Standard Newswire, August 1, 2007.
138. Government Notice of Filing, U.S. District Court, Southern District of Florida, Case No. 05-20444-CR-Seitz(s), United States v. Justin Evans, 13-19.
139. United States v. Justin Evans, 476 F.3d 1176 (11th Cir. 2007), 1177-78.
140. Myles, "Players Ball," 9.
141. Richard J. Estes and Neil Alan Weiner, "The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the U.S., Canada and Mexico," University of Pennsylvania, September 18, 2001 (amended April 2002), Abstract, www.sp2.upenn.edu/~restes/CSEC_Files/Abstract_010918.pdf, 2.
142. Richard J. Estes and Neil Alan Weiner, "The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in the U.S., Canada and Mexico," University of Pennsylvania, September 18, 2001 (amended April 2002), Executive Summary, www.sp2.upenn.edu/~restes/CSEC_Files/Exec_Sum_020220.pdf, 10.
143. Lisa M. Jones and David Finkelhor, "The Decline in Child Sexual Abuse Cases," OJJDP Bulletin (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention), January 2001; Lisa M. Jones, David M. Finkelhor, and Kathy Kopiec, "Why Is Sexual Abuse Declining? A Survey of State Child Protection Administrators," Child Abuse and Neglect 25 (2001): 1139-58.
144. Rachel Lloyd, interview, July 25, 2007.
145. "Connecticut Man Pleads Guilty for Role in Human Trafficking Ring," Standard Newswire, August 21, 2007.
146. Statement of Chris Swecker, assistant director, Criminal Investigative Division, Federal Bureau of Investigation, before the Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, United States Helsinki Commission, June 7, 2005, www.fbi.gov/congress/congress05/swecker060705.htm, 2.
147. Rachel Lloyd, interview, July 25, 2007.
148. Lois Lee, interview, July 23, 2007.
149. U.S. Department of Justice, "Man Sentenced to Life in Prison for Producing Video of Toddler Being Sexually Assaulted," press release, April 16, 2007, www.usdoj.gov/criminal/ceos/Press%20Releases/DID%20Banks%20sentence%20PR_041607.pdf.
150. Statement of Chris Swecker.
151. "Life Term for Trafficking Juveniles," Washington Post, March 18, 2006.
152. Nancy Ramos, CATW, interview, October 10, 2007.
153. Andrew Oosterbaan, CEOS, interview, June 30, 2007.
154. Wendy Waldron, trial attorney, CEOS, interview, July 16, 2007.
155. The NGO was Agir pour les Femmes en Situation Precaire (Acting for Women in Distressing Situations).
156. U.S. Department of Justice, "Man Convicted of Sex Tourism, Child Pornography Charges," press release, April 5, 2007, www.usdoj.gov/usao/fls/PressReleases/070405-02.pdf.
157. Anna Rodriguez, director, Florida Coalition Against Human Trafficking, interview, September 18, 2007.
158. Andrew Oosterbaan, interview, August 7, 2007.
159. Wendy Waldron, interview, July 16, 2007.
160. Rachel Lloyd, interview, July 25, 2007.
161. Dorchen Leidholdt, interview, October 8, 2007.
162. ECPAT stands for "End Child Prostitution and Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes," perhaps the most unwieldy name in the antitrafficking world.
163. Carole Smolenski, ECPAT, interview, August 13, 2007.
164. Rachel Lloyd, interview, July 25, 2007.
165. Carole Smolenski, interview, August 13, 2007.
166. Christa Stewart, the Door, interview, July 20, 2007.
167. Lois Lee, interview, July 23, 2007.
168. Alison Boak, president of IOFA, interview, August 13, 2007.
169. Florrie Burke, human trafficking consultant, interview, June 26, 2007.
170. Lois Lee, interview, July 23, 2007. In fact, several NGOs offer beds to victims of trafficking, but they keep this information confidential for the victims' and the NGOs' security. Nonetheless, the shortage of accommodations is a huge problem.
171. Christa Stewart, interview, July 20, 2007.
172. Testimony of Ann Jordan, former director, Initiative Against Trafficking in Persons, Global Rights, before the House Subcommittee on Border, Maritime and Global Counterterrorism, March 20, 2007, http://homeland.house.gov/SiteDocuments/20070320165954-38416.pdf, 5-6.
173. Dorchen Leidholdt, interview, October 8, 2007.
174. CarlLa Horton, executive director, Northern Westchester Shelter, interview, October 10, 2007.
175. Testimony of Ann Jordan, 6-7.
176. Lois Lee, interview, July 23, 2007.
177. Florrie Burke, interview, August 3, 2007.
178. Lois Lee, interview, July 23, 2007.
179. Dorchen Leidholdt, interview, October 8, 2007.
180. Bradley Myles, Polaris Project, interview, July 31, 2007.
181. Mark Lagon, director, TIP Office, interview, October 3, 2007.
182. Carole Smolenski, interview, August 13, 2007.
183. Alison Boak, interview, July 30, 2007.
184. Lou de Baca, U.S. House Judiciary Committee, interview, August 14, 2007.
185. Andrea Powell, FAIR Fund, interview, August 8, 2007.
186. Lou de Baca, interview, August 14, 2007.
187. Bradley Myles, interview, July 31, 2007.
188. Detective Lieut. Edward P. Re illy, interview, October 17, 2007.
189. Edward J. Schauer and Elizabeth M. Wheaton, "Sex Trafficking into the United States: A Literature Review," Criminal Justice Review 31, no. 1 (2006): 1.
190. Norma Ramos, interview, October 10, 2007.
191. Schauer and Wheaton, "Sex Trafficking," 2.
192. Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Frimer on the Male Demand for Prostitution (N. Amherst, MA: Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, 2006), http://action.web.ca/home/catw/attach/PRIMER.pdf.
193. Norma Ramos, interview, October 10, 2007.
194. Anthony M. DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking: U.S. Policy Assessed (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007), 109.
195. William F. McDonald, quoted in Barbara Ann Stolz, "Interpreting the U.S. Human Trafficking Debate through the Lens of Symbolic Politics," Law and Policy 29 (July 2007): 322.
196. According to Swedish law, the economic and social relationship between a woman selling sex and a man buying sex is not a relationship that even approaches equality. The rationale behind the law is that as long as society remains male dominated, women selling sex will be in a more vulnerable position than men buying sex. Men's right to buy women's bodies is seen as a form of male dominance to be resisted and controlled. This law leaves the sale of sex as legal; it is only the purchase that is made illegal, thus attempting to redress the imbalance of power between men and women. An official report by the government concerning the law explained: "The proposal by the Prostitution Report to criminalize both buyer and seller has been subjected to extensive criticism by almost all referral bodies. The government also deems that, even if prostitution in itself is not a desirable social activity, it is not reasonable to prosecute the party that, at least in most cases, is the weaker party, exploited by others to satisfy their sexual drive. This is also important if prostitutes are to be encouraged to get help to leave prostitution and can feel they will not have to worry about the consequences of having been prostitutes." Quoted in Maria-Pia Boethius, "The End of Prostitution in Sweden?" Swedish Institute, October 1999.
197. Dorchen Leidholdt, interview, October 8, 2007.
198. Norma Ramos, interview, October 10, 2007. The validity of these figures has been questioned by other organizations. DeStefano cites New York City's Urban Justice Center's report that "fewer than 25% of the immigrant women served by the center's sex workers project fit the criteria for being labeled a trafficked person." DeStefano, War on Human Trafficking, 115.
199. Stolz, "Interpreting," 323.
200. Testimony of Ann Jordan, 1-2.
201. DeStefano, War on Human Trafficking, 116.
202. Stolz, "Interpreting," 326.
203. DeStefano, War on Human Trafficking, 108.
204. It is in fact difficult to identify any other policy area where such a requirement has been made. Any number of advocacy groups, in many areas of social and environmental policy, call for changing existing laws. The right to call for a change in law, through peaceful and democratic means, seems to be clearly guaranteed under the First Amendment to the Constitution. The authors are adamant in our support for the right to peacefully question and call for reform of any law or policy within a context of free speech and democratic process.
205. Testimony of Ann Jordan, 2.
206. Florrie Burke, interview, September 13, 2007.
207. DeStefano, War on Human Trafficking, 129.
208. Jacqueline Berman, "The Left, the Right, and the Prostitute: The Making of U.S. Antitrafficking in Persons Policy," Tulane Journal of International and Comparative Law 14 (Spring 2006): 274.
209. Dorchen Leidholdt, interview, October 8, 2007.
210. Norma Ramos, interview, October 10, 2007.
211. Mark Lagon, interview, October 3, 2007.
212. Dorchen Leidholdt, interview, October 8, 2007.
213. Ann Jordan, interview, October 24, 2007. The ILO quotes within this quote are from Lin Lean Lim, "Trafficking, Demand and the Sex Market," International Institute for Labour Studies, International Labour Organization, presented at the International Symposium on Gender at the Heart of Globalization, March 12, 2007, www.sexworkeurope.org/site/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=41&Itemid=198, 7.
214. Untitled, unpublished position paper, Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking (CAST), Los Angeles, October 19, 2007.
215. Heather Moore, CAST, interview, September 14, 2007.
216. Quoted in Brian Donahue, "Three Charged in Hair Salon Human Trafficking Ring," Newark Star-Ledger, September 6, 2007.
217. Quoted in "Authorities: West Africans Used as N.J. Hair-Braiding Slaves," AP report, September 9, 2007, NBC10.com, www.nbc10.com/news/14064841/detail.html?rss=phi&psp=news.
218. See Thomas R. Dew, Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature of 1831 and 1832 (Richmond, 1832). Another slavery apologist who regularly repeated that slaves were better off in America than free in Africa was George Fitzhugh; see ch. 5, "Negro Slavery," in his Sociology for the South, or the Failure of Free Society (Richmond, VA: A. Morris, 1854).
219. Quoted in Adrienne Packer, Lynnette Curtis, and Francis McCabe, "China Star Acrobats: Trio Face Slavery Charges," Las Vegas Review-Journal, July 4, 2007.
220. "US Court Opens Trial on Slavery Charges," Zou Di, August 6, 2007, www.china.org.cn/english/China/219946.htm.
221. Florrie Burke, Human Trafficking Consultant, interview, September 17, 2007.
222. Lou de Baca, counsel, U.S. House of Representatives Counsel on the Judiciary, interview, September 13, 2007.
223. "Suffering in Silence," Time, August 4, 1997.
224. "Deaf Mexicans Recount Enslavement in the City," New York Sun, September 28, 2006.
225. Lou de Baca, interview, September 13, 2007.
226. Florrie Burke, interview, March 2, 2007.
227. "Suffering in Silence."
228. Florrie Burke, interview, March 2, 2007.
229. "Suffering in Silence."
230. Lou de Baca, interview, September 13, 2007.
231. "Suffering in Silence."
232. Lou de Baca, interview, September 13, 2007.
233. "Deaf Mexicans Recount Enslavement."
234. Florrie Burke, interview, September 17, 2007.
235. "Deaf Mexicans Recount Enslavement."
236. Lou de Baca, interview, September 13, 2007.
237. Florrie Burke, interview, September 17, 2007.
238. Sandy Shepherd, interview, August 21, 2007.
239. Given Kachepa, interview, May 15, 2007.
240. Quoted in Ron Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon: The Life and Trial of an American Slave Trader (New York: Atria, 2007), 255.
241. Sandy Shepherd, interview, August 21, 2007.
242. U.S. District Court for the District of Kansas, Case No. 04-40141 SAC, Second Superseding Indictment: United States v. Arlan Dean Kaufman and Linda Joyce Kaufman, 14.
243. "Breaking Down Doors to a Human Nightmare," Topeka Capital-Journal, June 27, 2005.
244. Indictment, Arlan Dean Kaufman and Linda Joyce Kaufman, 18.
245. "Kaufman House Stun Gun Incidents Focus of Testimony," Topeka Capital-Journal, October 18, 2005; also, U.S. Department of Justice, "Kansas Couple Convicted of Involuntary Servitude Charges for Abusing Mentally Ill Patients," press release, November 7, 2005.
246. Indictment, Arlan Dean Kaufman and Linda Joyce Kaufman, 5.
247. "Breaking Down Doors."
248. "Kaufmans Receive Restitution Orders," Kansan, June 15, 2006.
249. Jim Cross, public information officer, U.S. Attorney's Office, Topeka, KS, interview, May 26, 2007.
250. Currently the United States holds nine territories: the Midway Islands, Puerto Rico, the Northern Mariana Islands, the Virgin Islands, Micronesia, the Marshall Islands, Palau, Guam, and American Samoa, where this story takes place.
251. Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon, 257.
252. Federal Bureau of Investigation, "Anatomy of an International Human Trafficking Case, Part 1," FBI Headline Archives, July 16, 2004, www.fbi.gov/page2/july04/kisoolee071604.htm.
253. Krishna Patel, assistant U.S. attorney, Bridgeport, CT, interview, April 13, 2007; also U.S. District Court, District of Connecticut, Indictment, Criminal No. 3:03CR350 (PCD), United States v. Hussein Mutungirehe, Abiba Kanzayire.
254. Indictment, Arlan Dean Kaufman and Linda Joyce Kaufman.
255. U.S. Attorney's Office, District of Connecticut, "Rwandan Child Smuggler Sentenced," press release, February 24, 2005.
256. Krishna Patel, interview, April 13, 2007.
257. See Michael Smith and David Voreacos, "The Secret World of Modern Slavery," Bloomberg Markets, December 2006.
258. See National Marine Fisheries Service, "Fish Watch: U.S. Seafood Facts," n.d., www.nmfs.noaa.gov/fishwatch/trade_and_aquaculture.htm (accessed August 2007).
259. See, for example, Environmental Justice Foundation, "Dying for Your Dinner," June 26, 2003, www.csrwire.com/PressRelease.php?id=1932; International Labour Organization, "Forced Labor in Burma," Report No. 32, September 8, 1998, http://burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199809/ msg00281.html.
260. Anti-Slavery International, "Indonesian Fishing Platforms," report, London, 1998.
261. See "Indonesia Hopes to Increase Fish Export Earning to US$ 5 Billion," Indonesian Commercial Newsletter, March 2004.
262. Smith and Voreacos, "Secret World," 60.
263. Australian Anti-Slavery Society, "Was Your Sparkling Diamond Produced by Child Slaves or Polished by Bonded Children?" 2003, www.anti-slaverysociety.addr.com/diamonds.htm.
264. Quoted in Smith and Voreacos, "Secret World," 64.
265. Ginny Baumann, director of partnerships, Free the Slaves, Washington, DC, interview, July 12, 2007.
266. Dan McDougall, "Indian 'Slave' Children Found Making Low-Cost Clothes Destined for Gap," Observer, October 28, 2007.
267. Ramin Pejan, "Laogai: 'Reform through Labor' in China," Human Rights Brief: A Legal Resource for the International Human Rights Community 7, no. 2 (2000): 22.
268. See, for example, Greenpeace, "Cyanide, Gold Mining's Devastating Killer," August 30, 2006, www.greenpeace.org/seasia/en/press/reports/cyanide-gold-mining-s-devasta.
269. You can see a Brazilian charcoal camp in Mato Grosso do Sul, using Google Earth and its satellite and aerial photographs. The beehive-shaped domes of the low ovens used to burn the forests into charcoal for use in the steel industry are lined up on each side of a dirt road. Smoke is rising from the ovens, and the ground is blackened near the road where charcoal has been spilt. To the east of the camp you can see where the forest has been clearcut to feed the ovens. Looking at satellite images, you cannot tell if the workers in this camp are free or enslaved, but you do know exactly where it is. If you would like to see this camp, the GPS coordinates are 19°52'14.22'' South, 53°03'30.84'' West.
270. Smith and Voreacos, "Secret World," 58.
271. See U.S. Department of Agriculture import figures at "Tropical Products: World Markets and Trade," March 2001, www.fas.usda.gov/htp/tropical/2001/03-01/troptoc.htm.
272. See Kevin Bales, Disposable People: New Slavery in the Global Economy, rev. ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004).
273. International Labour Organization, A Global Alliance against Forced Labor (Geneva: ILO, 2005).
274. Yuki Noguchi, "Gates Foundation to Get Bulk of Buffett's Fortune," Washington Post, June 26, 2006, A01.
275. Ron Soodalter, Hanging Captain Gordon: The Life and Trial of an American Slave Trader (New York: Atria, 2006).
276. You can learn more about Rugmark at www.rugmark.org.
277. Expenditure on antitrafficking work within the United States is around $150 million; the international work of the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons in the State Department costs up to $100 million per year. See, for example, Jerry Markon, "Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage," Washington Post, September 23, 2007, and the annual Trafficking in Persons Report of the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, the latest of which, Trafficking in Persons Report 2006, is available on their Web site at www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2006/.
278. See, for example, Petri Raivio, "The War on Drugs: The U.S. Approach to the Drug Problem," U.S. Institutions Survey Paper, FAST Area Studies Program, Department of Translation Studies, University of Tampere, April 2001,www.uta.fi/FAST/US2/PAPS/pr-drugs.html.
279. Free the Slaves, Slavery Still Exists and It Could Be in Your Backyard: A Community Member's Guide to Fighting Human Trafficking and Slavery (Washington, DC: Free the Slaves, 2004), http://66.216.83.171/files/Community_Guide.pdf, 2.
280. U.S. Department of Education, "Human Trafficking of Children in the United States: A Fact Sheet for Schools," June 2007, www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/osdfs/factsheet.pdf.
281. "Middle Tennessee Sees Rise in Human Trafficking," WBIR.com, June 22, 2007.
282. Elaine Fletcher, interview, August 20, 2007.
283. Sandy Shepherd, interview, August 21, 2007. All of the subsequent details and quotations from Sandy Shepherd regarding this story come from this interview.
284. Sarah Schell, interview, September 11, 2007. All the subsequent details and quotations from Sarah Schell regarding this story come from this interview.
285. Quotations from Mike Massey come from "The Competition," This American Life, Public Radio International, December 3, 2007. For a detailed discussion of the Pickle case, see John Bowe, Nobodies (New York: Random House, 2007).
286. "Don't Sweep Human Trafficking under the Rug," Jewish News Weekly of Northern California, September 18, 2006.
287. "Sheriffs Focusing on Human Trafficking," Pensacola News Journal.com, August 20, 2007, www.pensacolanewsjournal.com/apps.
288. Jason Van Brunt, Hillsborough, FL, Sheriff's Office, interview, September 6, 2007.
289. Hillsborough County Sheriff's Office, "Marcelino Guillen Jaimes Arrested for Human Trafficking," news release, March 15, 2007, www.hcso.tampa.fl.us/Press_Releases/2007/3/07-142.htm.
290. Jason Van Brunt, interview, September 6, 2007.
291. "FGCU Could Aid Trafficking Fight," News Press, July 5, 2007, 3.
292. "Middle Tennessee Sees Rise," 3.
293. Stephanie Weber, Houston Rescue and Restore Coalition, interview, August 28, 2008.
294. Freedom Network USA, home page, 2008, www.freedomnetworkusa.org.
295. Florrie Burke, human trafficking consultant, interview, August 28, 2007.
296. Lou de Baca, counsel, House Committee on the Judiciary, interview, September 13, 2007.
297. Florrie Burke, interview, August 28, 2007.
298. The founding organizations are Safe Horizon, Break the Chain, Coalition to Abolish Slavery and Trafficking (CAST), Coalition of Immokalee Workers, Florida Immigration Advocacy Center (FIAC), International Organization for Adolescents (IOFA), and Midwest Immigrant and Human Rights Center.
299. Florrie Burke, interview, August 28, 2007.
300. Barbara Ann Stolz, "Interpreting the U.S. Human Trafficking Debate through the Lens of Symbolic Politics," Law and Policy 29 (July 2007): 331.
301. Amy Farrell, interview, October 5, 2007.
302. Jack McDevitt and Amy Farrell, "Understanding and Improving Law Enforcement Responses to Human Trafficking," Final Report, June 30, 2007, Institute on Race and Justice, Northeastern University, prepared for National Institute of Justice.
303. Amy Farrell, interview, October 5, 2007.
304. McDevitt and Farrell, "Understanding and Improving," 4.
305. Kathryn Turman, program director, Office of Victim Assistance, FBI, interview, October ii, 2007.
306. McDevitt and Farrell, "Understanding and Improving," 7.
307. Amy Farrell, interview, October 5, 2007.
308. McDevitt and Farrell, "Understanding and Improving," 9.
309. Sheila Toomey, "Russians Brought by a Chugiak Man Were Supposed to Be Tourists, Officials Say," Anchorage Daily News, January 6, 2001.
310. Vicki Viotti, "Waipahu Man Accused of Human Trafficking," Honolulu Advertiser, June 14, 2003.
311. U.S. Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, United States v. Lueleni Fetongi Maka, June 14, 2007.
312. "Immigrant Sisters Admit Charges in Human Trafficking," Star-Ledger, August 4, 2006.
313. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, "United States v. Jones (Georgia)," Anti-Trafficking News Bulletin, Summer/Fall 2007, www.usdoj.gov/crt/crim/trafficking_newsletter/aug_07.htm#12, 9.
314. iAbolish American Antislavery Group, "Slavery in the United States," 2008, www.ibolish.org/slavery_today/usa/states.html, 5.
315. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, "United States v. Djoumessi (Michigan)," Anti-Trafficking News Bulletin, Summer/Fall 2007, 8.
316. "Human Trafficking Becomes a Problem in Virginia," WSLS-TV, April 30, 2006.
317. "State to Focus on Human Trafficking," Atlanta Journal-Constitution, April 15, 2006.
318. "Human Trafficking in North Texas," CBS 11, Dallas, June 12, 2006.
319. "Human Trafficking in Idaho," KBCI, July 25, 2006.
320. "Human Trafficking-in D.C.," Washington Times, August 23, 2006.
321. "Human Trafficking, in Minnesota," Star Tribune, October 8, 2006.
322. "State Takes on Modern Slavery," Press Journal, April 7, 2006.
323. "Legislators Target Human Trafficking," Deseret News, September 19, 2006.
324. "New Law Makes Human Trafficking Illegal in Iowa," WHO-TV, April 21, 2006.
325. "State a Hot Spot for Human Trafficking, Panel Says," Mercury News, December 5 , 2007.
326. Amy Farrell, "State Human Trafficking Legislation," in Marshaling Every Resource: State and Local Responses to Human Trafficking, ed. Dessi Dimitrova (Princeton, NJ: Policy Research Institute for the Region, 2007), 21.
327. Lou de Baca, counsel, U.S. House of Representatives Judiciary Committee, interview, December 19, 2007.
328. Leslie Wolfe, president, Center for Women Policy Studies, interview, December 21, 2007.
329. Farrell, "State Human Trafficking Legislation."
330. Jim Finckenauer and Min Liu, "State Law and Human Trafficking," in Dimitrova, Marshaling Every Resource, 5 .
331. Mark Lagon, interview, October 3, 2007.
332. Finckenauer and Liu, "State Law," 9.
333. Quoted in Dimitrova, Marshaling Every Resource, 1.
334. Center for Women Policy Studies, "Report Card on State Action to Combat International Trafficking," May 2007, www.centerwomenpolicy.org/documents/ReportCardonStateActiontoCombatInternationalTrafficking.pdf, 7.
335. Leslie Wolfe, president, Center for Women Policy Studies, interview, December 21, 2007.
336. Center for Women Policy Studies, "Report Card."
337. Center for Women Policy Studies, "Report Card," 7 ff.
338. Leslie Wolfe, interview, December 21, 2007.
339. Farrell, "State Human Trafficking Legislation," 18.
340. Lou de Baca, interview, December 19, 2007.
341. Farrell, "State Human Trafficking Legislation," 30.
342. Finckenauer and Liu, "State Law," 12.
343. "Blame Somebody Else," Exposé: America's Investigative Reports, September 21, 2007.
344. David Phinney, "A U.S. Fortress Rises in Baghdad: Asian Workers Trafficked to Build World's Largest Embassy," Corp Watch, October 17, 2006, 1.
345. "Construction Woes Add to Fears in Iraq," Washington Post, July 5, 2007.
346. Phinney, "U.S. Fortress," 1.
347. "Dodging on Human Trafficking?" The Swamp, Chicago Tribune, June 22, 2006, 2.
348. KBR (formerly known as Kellogg Brown and Root), the largest contractor in Iraq, is a subsidiary of Halliburton, the Texas-based firm that Vice President Dick Cheney formerly helmed. KBR has a multi-billion-dollar deal with the U.S. military to provide a wide range of support services for the soldiers, including meals, housing, and laundry.
349. Phinney, "U.S. Fortress," 2.
350. "Foreign Workers Abused at Embassy, Panel Told," Washington Post, July 27, 2007, 1-2.
351. Phinney, "U.S. Fortress," 2.
352. "Foreign Workers Abused," 2.
353. "Foreign Workers Abused," 2.
354. Copies of the Submission to the Committee on Oversight and Government Reform by Free the Slaves, July 26, 2007, are available from info@freetheslaves.net.
355. "Blame Somebody Else," 2-3.
356. "State Dept. Official Accused of Blocking Inquiry," New York Times, September 18, 2007, 1.
357. Cathy Albisa, interview, September 26, 2007.
358. Cathy Albisa, interview, October 25, 2007.
359. See chapter 3 above.
360. Roberto Lovato, "Gulf Coast Slaves," Salon.com, October 25, 2007.
361. Laura Germino, interview, October 26, 2007.
362. For a comprehensive description of the functions of the various federal agencies and their history in the twenty-first-century antislavery campaign, see Anthony M. DeStefano, The War on Human Trafficking: U.S. Policy Assessed (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2007).
363. U.S. Department of State, Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, "Overview of U.S. Government Federal Agencies' Principal Roles to Combat Trafficking in Persons (TIP)," fact sheet, June 29, 2007, www.state.gov/g/tip/rls/fs/07/87547.htm.
364. Vanessa Garza, former director of the HHS Trafficking in Persons Program (A/TIP), currently associate director for Trafficking Policy in the Office of Refugee Resettlement (ORR), interview, October 26, 2007.
365. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
366. Vanessa Garza, interview, October 26, 2007.
367. Steve Wagner, interview, November 26, 2007.
368. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
369. Florrie Burke, interview, November 15, 2007.
370. Vanessa Garza, interview, October 26, 2007.
371. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
372. Ann Jordan, interview, November 21, 2007.
373. Vanessa Garza, interview, October 26, 2007.
374. Jerry Markon, "Human Trafficking Evokes Outrage, Little Evidence," Washington Post, September 23, 2007.
375. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
376. Vanessa Garza, interview, October 26, 2007.
377. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
378. Vanessa Garza, interview, October 26, 2007.
379. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, "Annual ORR Reports to Congress-2005," www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/05arc6.htm.
380. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
381. Vanessa Garza, interview, October 26, 2007.
382. See chapter 5 above for a description of the case.
383. Sister Mary Ellen Dougherty, USCCB, interview, December 4, 2007.
384. Anastas i a Brown, di rector of refugee programs, USCCB, interview, December 4, 2007.
385. Nyssa Mestes, assistant director for trafficking, USCCB, interview, December 4, 2007.
386. Anastasia Brown, interview, December 4, 2007.
387. Sister Mary Ellen Dougherty, interview, December 4, 2007.
388. Nyssa Mestes, interview, December 4, 2007.
389. Sister Mary Ellen Dougherty, interview, December 4, 2007.
390. USCCB, "Proposal for Services to Victims of Human Trafficking," submitted to HHS, RFP #06Y007781, February 23, 2006, 23.
391. Sister Mary Ellen Dougherty, interview, December 5, 2007.
392. Steve Wagner, interview, November 19, 2007.
393. FBI, "Victim Assistance," n.d., www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/victimassist/home.htm.
394. Kathryn Turman, program director, OVA, FBI, interview, October 11, 2007.
395. Carlton Peeples, unit chief, Civil Rights Unit, FBI, interview, November 11, 2007.
396. DeStefano, War on Human Trafficking, 134.
397. U.S. Department of State, "Overview."
398. Ginny Bauman, Free the Slaves, interview, August 30, 2008.
399. U.S. Department of State, "Overview."
400. Ben Skinner, interview, January 3, 2008.
401. U.S. Government Accountability Office, "Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Antitrafficking Efforts Abroad," Report to the Chairman, Committee on the Judiciary, and the Chairman, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, July 2006, www.gao.gov/new.items/d06825.pdf.
402. Ann Jordan, interview, October 11, 2007.
403. For a full discussion of John Miller's tenure in the TIP Office, see E. Benjamin Skinner, A Crime So Monstrous: Face-to-Face with Modern-Day Slavery (New York: Free Press, 2008).
404. Mark Lagon, interview, October 3, 2007.
405. Mark Lagon, interview with Michelle Martin, Tell Me More, National Public Radio, January 7, 2008.
406. U.S. Department of State, "Overview."
407. Lou de Baca, interview, April 2, 2008.
408. Albert Moskowitz, former section chief, Criminal Section of the Civil Rights Division, U.S. Department of Justice, interview, December 12, 2007.
409. Anthony M. DeStefano, "Study: Trafficking Project Unchecked," Newsday.com, July 26, 2007.
410. Florrie Burke, interview, March 25, 2008.
411. The list and discussion of indicators that follow represent a compilation of information from Free the Slaves, human trafficking consultant Florrie Burke, and members of the Freedom Network Institute, including Break the Chain, the Florida Immigrant Advocacy Center, Safe Horizon, and the Coalition of Immokalee Workers.
412. "Suit Charges That Nursery Mistreated Laborers," New York Times, February 8, 2007.
413. "In the Field with a Real ICE Agent" [Supervisory Special Agent Anthony Scandiffio], n.d., Turmoil Leads to Hope, www.TLTH.org/ht.htm.
414. Kara Kenney, "Group Wants Tampons to Display Anti-trafficking Hotline," NBC-2.com. (Collier County, FL), January 17, 2007.
415. "I Am the Change-Leslie Hughes," 2007, www.freetheslaves.net/NETCOMMUNITY/SSLPage.aspx?pid=354&srcid=381.
416. Andrew Oosterbaan, U.S. Department of Justice, Child Obscenity and Exploitation Section (CEOS), interview, August 7, 2007.
417. According to White House budget figures, the federal expenditure on drug enforcement, not counting any incarceration costs, was just under $12.5 billion in 2006. Expenditure on all antitrafficking and antislavery projects by the federal government in 2006 was about $200 million, or less than 2 percent of the expenditure on drugs.