The social construction of sex trafficking: Ideology and institutionalization of a moral crusade

Politics and Society

Volumn 35, Issue 3, 2007, Pages 447-475

  Weitzer, Ronald ^a,b  

^a GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Criminalization; Moral panic; Prostitution; Sex trafficking

Indexed keywords

EID: 34548244614     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: 15527514     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329207304319     Document Type: Article

References (169)

1. The article examines developments in the United States, including American foreign policy, and does not examine the parallel debate on the international stage. See Jo Doezema, " Now You See Her, Now You Don't: Sex Workers at the UN Trafficking Protocol Negotiations, " Social and Legal Studies 14 (2005). 61-89, and
2. Barbara Sullivan, " Trafficking in Women: Feminism and New International Law, " International Feminist Journal of Politics 5 (2003). 67-91.
3. Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse, " Social Problems: A Re-Formulation, " Social Problems 21 (1973). 146.
4. Howard Becker, Outsiders (New York: Free Press, 1963).
5. Stanley Cohen, Folk Devils and Moral Panics (New York: St. Martin's, 1972).
6. Joseph Gusfield, Symbolic Crusade ( Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1963 ).
7. Joel Best, Threatened Children ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990 ).
8. Cohen, Folk Devils ; Erich Goode and Nachman Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics: The Social Construction of Deviance ( Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1994 ).
9. Joel Best, Random Violence: How We Talk about New Crimes and New Victims (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999). 103-18.
10. For example, Darren Sherkat and Christopher Ellison, " The Cognitive Structure of a Moral Crusade: Conservative Protestantism and Opposition to Pornography, " Social Forces 75 (1997). 957-80 ;
11. Louis Zurcher and R. George Kirkpatrick, Citizens for Decency: Antipornography Campaigns as Status Defense ( Austin: University of Texas Press, 1976 ).
12. Meese Commission, Final Report of the Attorney General's Commission on Pornography ( Nashville: Rutledge Hill Press, 1986 ).
13. Carole Vance, " The Meese Commission on the Road, " The Nation (August 2, 1986). 76-80 ;
14. Gordon Hawkins and Franklin Zimring, Pornography in a Free Society (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988).
15. Donald Downs, The New Politics of Pornography ( Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989 ).
16. U.S. Department of Justice, Beyond the Pornography Commission: The Federal Response ( Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1988 ).
17. Ted Gest, " The Drive to Make America Porn-Free, " U.S. News and World Report (February 6, 1989). 26-27 ;
18. Jim McGee, " U.S. Crusade against Pornography Tests the Limits of Fairness, " Washington Post (January 11, 1993). Under Clinton, the Justice Department greatly reduced prosecutions of adult obscenity cases and focused instead on child pornography.
19. Sidney Tarrow, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics ( New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998 ).
20. Vance, "Meese Commission."
21. Phyllis Chesler and Donna Hughes, " Feminism in the 21st Century, " Washington Post (February 22, 2004 ).
22. Laura Lederer, quoted in Mindy Belz, "No Sale, " World Magazine (March 25, 2000 ).
23. Donna Hughes, quoted in Kathryn Lopez, " The New Abolitionist Movement: Donna Hughes on Progress Fighting Sex Trafficking, " National Review (January 26, 2006 ).
24. Mainstream feminists have been involved in the debate at certain junctures. For instance, during international negotiations over a UN treaty on sex trafficking in January 2000, Gloria Steinem and the presidents of the National Organization for Women and Planned Parenthood sent a letter to President Clinton protesting the administration's refusal to define all types of prostitution as "sexual exploitation" and insistence that only forced prostitution be so designated. See Barbara Stolz, " Educating Policymakers and Setting the Criminal Justice Policymaking Agenda: Interest Groups and the 'Victims of Trafficking and Violence Act of 2000, '" Criminal Justice 5 (2005). 418.
25. Resolution 141, passed at annual NOW conference, 1973. The resolution called for the decriminalization of prostitution on the grounds that law enforcement was genderbiased, and that criminalization punished poor women who face limited job opportunities.
26. See, for example, Gayle Rubin, " Thinking Sex: Notes for an Abolitionist Theory of the Politics of Sexuality, " in C. Vance, ed., Pleasure and Danger (Boston: Routledge, 1984).
27. Rubin, " Misguided, Dangerous, and Wrong: An Analysis of Antipornography Politics, " in A. Assiter and A. Carol, eds., Bad Girls and Dirty Pictures (London: Pluto, 1993).
28. Nadine Strossen, Defending Pornography ( New York: Anchor, 1995 ).
29. Melissa Ditmore, " Trafficking in Lives: How Ideology Shapes Policy, " in K. Kempadoo, ed., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work, and Human Rights ( Boulder: Paradigm, 2005 ).
30. Gretchen Soderlund, " Running from the Rescuers: New U.S. Crusades Against Sex Trafficking and the Rhetoric of Abolition, " NWSA Journal 17 (2005). 64-87.
31. Elisabeth Bumiller, " Evangelicals Sway White House on Human Rights Issues Abroad, " New York Times (October 26, 2003).
32. Nina Shapiro, " The New Abolitionists, " Seattle Weekly (August 25, 2004).
33. Laura Blumenfeld, " In a Shift, Anti-Prostitution Effort Targets Pimps and Johns, " Washington Post (December 15, 2005 ).
34. Ronald Weitzer, " Prostitutes' Rights in the United States: The Failure of a Movement, " Sociological Quarterly 32 (1991). 23-41.
35. Andrea Dworkin, Pornography: Men Possessing Women (New York: Putnam, 1981) and Life and Death (New York: Free Press, 1997).
36. Catherine MacKinnon, Feminism Unmodified ( Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987 ).
37. Lederer, quoted in Bob Jones, " Trafficking Cops, " World Magazine (June 15, 2002 ).
38. CATW founder Kathleen Barry's book (Female Sexual Slavery, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1979, 227, 230) advocates a view of sex quite similar to that of the religious right:
39. We are really going back to the values women have always attached to sexuality, values that have been robbed from us, distorted and destroyed as we have been colonized through both sexual violence and so-called sexual liberation. They are the values and needs that connect sex with warmth, affection, love, caring.... Sexual values and the positive, constructive experience of sex must be based in intimacy.... Sexual intimacy precludes the proposition that sex is the right of anyone and asserts instead that it must be earned through trust and sharing. It follows then that sex cannot be purchased, legally acquired, or seized by force.
40. Although such traditional sexual values are rarely articulated by abolitionist feminists today, it is noteworthy that Kathleen Barry founded CATW, and that her book is the seminal text in the abolitionist literature.
41. Sherkat and Ellison, " The Cognitive Structure of a Moral Crusade."
42. Ron Sider, quoted in Shapiro, " New Abolitionists."
43. Timothy Morgan, " Sex Isn't Work, " Christianity Today (December 29, 2006 ).
44. Glona Cowan, Cheryl Chase, and Geraldine Stahly, " Feminist and Fundamentalist Attitudes toward Pornography Control, " Psychology of Women Quarterly 13 (1989). 97-112.
45. Examples can be found in evangelical magazines such as The World and Christianity Today, the Web sites of organizations on the right such as the Salvation Army and Concerned Women for America, and in many other places. Conservative icons William Bennett and Charles Colson, for example, argue that " prostitution and pornography inevitably exploits women, whether they consent to it or not." William Bennett and Charles Colson, " The Clintons Shrug at Sex Trafficking, " Wall Street Journal (January 10, 2000 ).
46. Vance, "Meese Commission."
47. Janice Raymond, " Prostitution on Demand: Legalizing the Buyers as Sexual Consumers, " Violence Against Women 10 (2004). 1175.
48. Ronald Weitzer, " Flawed Theory and Method in Studies of Prostitution, " Violence Against Women 11 (2005). 934-49.
49. Janice Raymond and Donna Hughes, Sex Trafficking of Women in the United States. Coalition against Trafficking in Women ( Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, 2001 ).
50. Weitzer, " Flawed Theory."
51. Cohen, Folk Devils; Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics.
52. Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics
53. Horowitz, quoted in Blumenfeld, "In a Shift, " A16.
54. Ronald Weitzer, " New Directions in Research on Prostitution, " Crime, Law, and Social Change 43 (2005). 211-35.
55. Martin Monto, " Why Men Seek out Prostitutes, " in R. Weitzer, ed., Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry (New York: Routledge, 2000). and " Female Prostitution, Customers, and Violence, " Violence Against Women 10 (2004). 160-68.
56. Raymond and Hughes, Sex Trafficking, 25.
57. Weitzer, " Flawed Theory"; Weitzer, "New Directions"; Ine Vanwesenbeeck, "Another Decade of Social Scientific Work on Prostitution, " Annual Review of Sex Research 12 (2001). 242-89.
58. For example, almost all of the 294 prostitutes interviewed in a Miami study preferred to be called working women or sex workers. Steven Kurtz, Hilary Surratt, James Inciardi, and Marion Kiley, " Sex Work and Date Violence, " Violence Against Women 10 (2004). 357-85.
59. Weitzer, " Flawed Theory";
60. Wendy Chapkis, "Power and Control in the Commercial Sex Trade, " in R. Weitzer, ed., Sex for Sale: Prostitution, Pornography, and the Sex Industry ( New York: Routledge, 2000 ).
61. Joanna Busza, Sarah Castle, and Aisse Diarra, " Trafficking and Health, " British Medical Journal 328 (June 5, 2004). 1369-71;
62. see also the identical findings in Thomas Steinfatt, Measuring the Number of Trafficked Women and Children in Cambodia: A Direct Observation Field Study (Washington, DC: USAID, 2003). 23-24.
63. Laura Agustin, " Migrants in the Mistress's House: Other Voices in the Trafficking Debate, " Social Politics 12 (2005). 98, 101.
64. Judith Vocks and Jan Nijboer, " The Promised Land: A Study of Trafficking in Women from Central and Eastern Europe to the Netherlands, " European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research 8 (2000). 383, 384.
65. Linda Meaker, " A Social Response to Transnational Prostitution in Queensland, Australia, " in S. Thorbek and B. Pattanaik, eds., Transnational Prostitution (London: Zed, 2002). 61, 63.
66. Jo Doezema, " Loose Women or Lost Women? The Re-emergence of the Myth of 'White Slavery ' in Contemporary Discourses of 'Trafficking in Women', " Gender Issues 18 (2000). 24.
67. Busza, Castle, and Diarra, "Trafficking and Health."
68. Steinfatt, Measuring the Number, 24.
69. Rubin, " Thinking Sex, " 301.
70. Melissa Farley, " Bad for the Body, Bad for the Heart: Prostitution Harms Women Even if Legalized or Decriminalized, " Violence Against Women 10 (2004). 1087-125;
71. Dorchen Leidholdt, " Prostitution and Trafficking in Women: An Intimate Relationship, " Journal of Trauma Practice 2 (2004). 167-83 ;
72. Raymond, " Prostitution on Demand."
73. Donna Hughes, " Wolves in Sheep's Clothing: No Way to End Sex Trafficking, " National Review Online (October 9, 2002). 2.
74. Donna Hughes, quoted in University of Rhode Island Press Release, " Expert on Sex Trafficking Contributes to Passage of Historic New Law " (January 11, 2006 ).
75. Donna Hughes, " Accommodation or Abolition? " National Review Online (May 1, 2003). 1.
76. Kamala Kempadoo, ed., Trafficking and Prostitution Reconsidered: New Perspectives on Migration, Sex Work, and Human Rights ( Boulder: Paradigm, 2005 ).
77. Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 36-44.
78. Hotaling, quoted in Meredith May, " Sex Trafficking: San Francisco is a Major Center for International Crime Networks that Smuggle and Enslave, " San Francisco Chronicle (October 6, 2006 ).
79. Editorial, " Putting the Sex Trade on Notice, " New York Times (January 9, 2004 ).
80. Oprah, " Child Sex Slaves in America, " American Broadcasting Company (November 2, 2005 ).
81. See http://www.unescobkk.org/culture/trafficking. UNESCO's Trafficking Statistics Project is an ongoing project attempting to assess the scale of the problem.
82. Liz Kelly, " You Can Find Anything You Want: A Critical Reflection on Research on Trafficking in Persons within and into Europe, " International Migration 43 (2005). 237.
83. Guri Tyldum and Anette Brunovskis, " Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Studies on Human Trafficking, " International Migration 43 (2005). 17-34.
84. Elzbieta Gozdziak and Elizabeth Collett, " Research on Human Trafficking in North America: A Review of the Literature, " International Migration 43 (2005). 99-128.
85. General Accountability Office, Human Trafficking: Better Data, Strategy, and Reporting Needed to Enhance U.S. Anti-trafficking Efforts Abroad (Washington, DC: GAO, 2006). 2, 10.
86. Gao, Human Trafficking, 3, 14.
87. Gary Haugen, International Justice Mission, Testimony before Congressional Human Rights Caucus, U.S. House of Representatives (June 6, 2002). CATW: http://www.catwinternational.org.
88. Gozdziak and Collett, " Research on Human Trafficking, " 110.
89. Louise Shelley, " The Trade in People in and from the Former Soviet Union, " Crime, Law, and Social Change 40 (2003). 231-49.
90. Janice Raymond, " Ten Reasons for Not Legalizing Prostitution and a Legal Response to the Demand for Prostitution, " Journal of Trauma Practice 2 (2003). 322.
91. Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Coalition Report ( Amherst: CATW, 2004 ).
92. http://www.catwinternational.org.
93. Raymond, " Ten Reasons, " 317, 329.
94. Linda Smith, Testimony before Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives, Hearing on the State Department's 2002 Trafficking in Persons Report (June 19, 2002). 66.
95. http://www.cwfa.org.
96. U. S. Department of State, Trafficking in Persons Report, 2005 (Washington, DC: Department of State, 2005). In Congressional testimony in October 2003, CATW's co-director called on the State Department to remove the Netherlands and Germany from the top, best-practice tier because they have legal prostitution (Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Coalition Report ( Amherst: CATW, 2003 ).
97. Transcrime, Study on National Legislation on Prostitution and the Trafficking in Women and Children. Report to the European Parliament, 2005, 121. There has also been an overall decrease in prostitution establishments (brothels, window units) since legalization in 2000, arguably because of stricter regulation. See Rode Draad [Red Thread], Rechten van Prostituees [Rights of Prostitutes], report funded by the Dutch Ministry of Social Affairs (Amsterdam: Rode Draad, 2006).
98. Kamala Kempadoo, " Introduction: Globalizing Sex Workers' Rights, " in K. Kempadoo and J. Doezema, eds., Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition (New York: Routledge, 1998). 17.
99. Alison Murray, " Debt Bondage and Trafficking, " in K. Kempadoo and J. Doezema, eds., Global Sex Workers: Rights, Resistance, and Redefinition (New York: Routledge 1998). 60.
100. Barbara Brents and Kathryn Hausbeck, " Violence and Legalized Brothel Prostitution in Nevada, " Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20 (2005). 289.
101. A.L. Dalder, Lifting the Ban on Brothels (The Hague: Ministry of Justice, 2004). 30.
102. Crime and Misconduct Commission, Regulating Prostitution: An Evaluation of the Prostitution Act 1999, Queensland (Brisbane, Australia: Crime and Misconduct Commission, 2004). 75, 89.
103. Similarly, the Meese Commission's 1986 report on pornography displayed what two experts called a "schizophrenic dissociation between the research findings and their interpretation by the commission." Hawkins and Zimring, Pornography in a Free Society, 99.
104. Ann Ferguson, " Sex War: The Debate between Radical and Libertarian Feminists, " Signs 10 (1989). 106-12 ;
105. Annette Jolin, " On the Backs of Working Prostitutes: Feminist Theory and Prostitution Policy, " Crime and Delinquency 40 (1994). 69-83 ;
106. Julia O'Connell Davidson, " Will the Real Sex Slave Please Stand Up? " Feminist Review 83 (2006). 4-22 ;
107. Vanwesenbeeck, " Another Decade, "
108. Weitzer, " Flawed Theory, "
109. Weitzer, " New Directions."
110. William Gamson, The Strategy of Social Protest (Homewood, IL: Dorsey, 1975).
111. Best, Random Violence;
112. Goode and Ben-Yehuda, Moral Panics, 224-29.
113. John Miller, " A Modern Slave Trade, " New York Post (May 22, 2005 ).
114. Miller, quoted in Bumiller, "Evangelicals Sway White House."
115. Ditmore, " Trafficking in Lives"; Shapiro, "New Abolitionists"; Penelope Saunders, "Traffic Violations, " Journal of Interpersonal Violence 20 (2005). 343-60.
116. The following are some of the formal "coalition members" in the Rescue and Restore Coalition: CATW, Protection Project, Evangelicals for Social Action, Family Research Council, SAGE, Sex Industry Survivors, Break the Chain Campaign, Religious Freedom Coalition, Focus on the Family, American Conservative Union, Culture of Life Foundation, Christian Medical Association, Concerned Women for America, Restoration Ministries International, and many other Christian organizations. See Attorney General, Report to Congress on U.S. Government Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2004 (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2005), Appendix 2.
117. Mayer Zald, " Ideologically Structured Action: An Enlarged Agenda for Social Movement Research, " Mobilization 5 (2000). 1-16.
118. J. Robert Flores, " Blind to the Law, " Family Voice (November 2000). magazine of Concerned Women for America.
119. Patrick Trueman, Testimony before the Subcommittee on the Constitution, Civil Rights, and Property Rights, United States Senate. Hearing on Obscenity Prosecution (March 16, 2005 ).
120. Shapiro, "New Abolitionists."
121. Ditmore, "Trafficking in Lives."
122. Thomas Edsall, " Grants Flow to Bush Allies on Social Issues, " Washington Post (March 22, 2006).
123. Esther Kaplan, With God on Their Side: George W. Bush and the Christian Right (New York: New Press, 2005). 214-18.
124. To cite just a few examples, in FY 2003 and FY 2004, CATW received $482,000, SAGE $200,000, the Protection Project $492,000, Donna Hughes $158,000, the Catholic Bishops Conference $600,000, Shared Hope International $500,000, World Vision $500,000, and the International Rescue Committee $2,666,000. See Attorney General, Report to Congress on U.S. Government Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2003 (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2004); Attorney General, Report, 2004.
125. Raymond and Hughes, Sex Trafficking of Women; Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, Coalition Report (Amherst: CATW, 2001). 7.
126. Gao, Human Trafficking, 25.
127. The TVPA created a new federal crime of "severe trafficking" in persons, which could result in a prison term of twenty years.
128. Dorothy Stetson, " The Invisible Issue: Prostitution and Trafficking of Women and Girls in the United States, " in J. Outshoorn, ed., The Politics of Prostitution ( New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004 ).
129. Stetson, "Invisible Issue." Similarly, at the international level in the mid-1990s, CATW and its allies were not particularly successful in gaining acceptance of their claims. At the 1995 Beijing Women's conference, for instance, CATW's proposals were successfully opposed by other feminist and sex worker's rights groups. CATW was somewhat more successful in influencing the 2000 United Nations' Protocol on Trafficking, which reflected a compromise between abolitionist feminists and sex work feminists (Sullivan, "Trafficking in Women").
130. The 2003 TVPA reauthorization contained new provisions for combating sex tourism by American citizens abroad, and new eligibility restrictions on organizations receiving government funding.
131. John Miller identified Donna Hughes, Laura Lederer, Michael Horowitz (of the Hudson Institute), Linda Smith (former Republican congresswoman), and Gary Haugen (president of the International Justice Mission) as involved in drafting the TVPA. See John Miller, Testimony at Congressional Hearing on Trafficking in Women and Children in East Asia and Beyond. Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs, Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate (April 9, 2003). In the Congressional Record, Rep. Chris Smith noted the contributions to the drafting of the TYPA of Horowitz, Lederer, Haugen, Charles Colson, Gloria Steinem, the Protection Project, Family Research Council, Equality Now, and the National Association of Evangelicals, while Senator Sam Brownback acknowledged the help of Haugen, Lederer, Steinem, Horowitz, William Bennett, the Southern Baptist Convention, Equality Now, and the National Association of Evangelicals (Stolz, "Educating Policymakers").
132. George W. Bush, " Combating Trafficking in Persons, " National Security Presidential Directive, no. 22 (December 16, 2002 ).
133. George W. Bush, " President Bush Addresses United Nations General Assembly," White House Press Release (September 23, 2003 ).
134. Richard Land, quoted in Bumiller, " Evangelicals Sway White House."
135. Miller, " Testimony."
136. Miller, quoted in P. Parameswaran, " Sex Worker Tag Giving Wrong Impression, " Agence France Presse (December 16, 2006 ).
137. Amy O'Neill Richard, International Trafficking of Women to the United States (Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2000). 3.
138. U.S. Department of State, " The Link between Prostitution and Sex Trafficking, " ( Washington, DC: Department of State, 2004 ).
139. After the Cambodian Ministry of Planning's Human Development Report, 2000, reported that there were 80,000-100,000 sex workers in Cambodia, this figure was converted into the number of trafficked "sex slaves" by the Child Rights Foundation of Cambodia, and then by other NGOs and the media. Even the Cambodian government's estimate of the number of sex workers seems a gross exaggeration. In a report for USAID based on fieldwork in Cambodia, it was estimated that there were 18,256 sex workers in 2003, most of whom were neither underage nor trafficked. Steinfatt, Measuring the Number, 11.
140. The figures on the American situation contrast sharply with estimates of sex trafficking into Britain, where the range was reported to be between 142 and 1,420 annually. The authors of this report caution that "it is not currently possible with any level of accuracy" to estimate the number of women trafficked within Europe. See Liz Kelly and Linda Regan, Stopping Traffic: Exploring the Extent of, and Responses to, Trafficking in Women for Sexual Exploitation in the UK. Police Research Series paper 125 (London: Home Office, 2000), 22, 8. In 2003, police and immigration officers in London found 295 immigration offenders during their routine visits to massage parlors and saunas, only five of whom were identified as victims of trafficking (O'Connell Davidson, "Will the Real Sex Slave").
141. U.S. Department of Justice, Efforts to Combat Trafficking in Persons in Fiscal Year 2004 (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2005), 4. Between FY 2001 and FY 2004, the Justice Department prosecuted 131 persons for sex trafficking offenses, and obtained ninety-nine convictions. Though relatively low for a four-year period, the figures were almost five times higher than during the previous four years, a period prior to the TVPA. See Attorney General, Report, 2004, 20.
142. Blumenfeld, " In a Shift."
143. Best, Threatened Children.
144. Becker, Outsiders.
145. Soderlund, " Running from the Rescuers, " 79.
146. National Institute of Justice, Solicitation: Trafficking in Human Beings Research and Comprehensive Literature Review (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, 2007). 4.
147. William Fisher, " USAID Sued Over Anti-Prostitution Policy, " Inter-Press Service News Agency (August 23, 2005 ).
148. Hughes, " Wolves in Sheep's Clothing, " 2.
149. TVPA 2000, Section 103[3]; TVPA 2005, Section 207[3].
150. The first john school was created in San Francisco in 1995 and was designed by Norma Hotaling of SAGE in association with city officials.
151. Hughes received $108,478 from the State Department to write this report (Attorney General, Report, 2004).
152. Donna Hughes, " The Demand for Victims of Sex Trafficking." Unpublished report (University of Rhode Island, 2005). 22, 26.
153. Anthony Verdugo, quoted in Julie Kay, " U.S. Attorney's Porn Fight Gets Bad Reviews, " Daily Business Review (August 30, 2005 ).
154. Hughes, " The Demand for Victims, " 26.
155. Trueman, " Testimony."
156. U.S. Department of Justice, "Obscenity Prosecution Task Force Established to Investigate, Prosecute Purveyors of Obscene Materials." Press Release (Washington, DC: Department of Justice, May 5, 2005);
157. Richard Schmitt, "U.S. Cracking Down on Porn," Deseret News (February 15, 2004).
158. Robert Gehrke, " Nation's Porn Prosecutor Fronts War against Obscenity, " Salt Lake Tribune (February 26, 2007 ).
159. Schmitt, " U.S. Cracking Down on Porn."
160. Jan LaRue, " Porn Industry Moans for Good Reason, " Concerned Women for America, http://www.cwfa.org (February 24, 2004 ).
161. Weitzer, " New Directions ";
162. Vanwesenbeeck, " Another Decade."
163. Doezema, " Loose Women or Lost Women."
164. William McDonald, " Traffic Counts, Symbols, and Agendas: A Critique of the Campaign Against Trafficking of Human Beings, " International Review of Victimology 11 (2004). 158.
165. Doezema, " Loose Women or Lost Women, " 24.
166. This tendency was also pronounced 150 years ago in the American moral reform campaign: "Most important, images of fallen women in popular literature and moral reform journals channeled the debate on prostitution away from adverse social and economic structures toward cruel seducers and evil agents.... [Reformers] could not comprehend the idea that prostitution could be a rational choice for women faced with a field of limited opportunities and options in the labor and marriage markets." Barbara Hobson, Uneasy Virtue: The Politics of Prostitution and the American Reform Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), 75, 76.
167. Sullivan, " Trafficking in Women."
168. Weitzer, " New Directions."
169. Ronald Weitzer, " Prostitution Control in America: Rethinking Public Policy, " Crime, Law, and Social Change 32 (1999). 83-102.