Of Animals and Objects: Men's Implicit Dehumanization of Women and Likelihood of Sexual Aggression

Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

Volumn 38, Issue 6, 2012, Pages 734-746

  Rudman, Laurie A ^a   Mescher, Kris ^a  

^a RUTGERS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

dehumanization; Implicit Association Test; sex discrimination; sexual aggression

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGGRESSION; ANIMAL; ARTICLE; DEHUMANIZATION; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PERCEPTIVE DISCRIMINATION; RAPE; SELF CONCEPT; SOCIAL DOMINANCE; STATISTICAL MODEL;

ADOLESCENT; AGGRESSION; ANIMALS; DEHUMANIZATION; DISCRIMINATION (PSYCHOLOGY); DOMINANCE-SUBORDINATION; FEMALE; HUMANS; LIKELIHOOD FUNCTIONS; MALE; RAPE; SELF CONCEPT; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84861665874     PISSN: 01461672     EISSN: 15527433     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0146167212436401     Document Type: Article

References (78)

1. Bandura A.,Underwood B.,Fromson M.E.Disinhibition of aggression through diffusion of responsibility and dehumanization of victims.Journal of Research in Personality. 1975;9:253-269.
2. Banse R.,Seise J.,Zerbes N.Implicit attitudes toward homosexuality: Reliability, validity, and controllability of the IAT.Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie. 2001;48:145-160.
3. Barbaree H.,Hudson S.,Seto M.The juvenile sex offender. Barbaree H.Marshall W.Hudson S., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 1993:1-24.
4. Calogero R.M.,Davis W.N.,Thompson J.K.The role of self-objectification in the experience of women with eating disorders.Sex Roles. 2005;52:43-50.
5. Campbell J.C.Health consequences of intimate partner violence.Lancet. 2002;359:1331-1336.
6. Castano E.,Giner-Sorolla R.Not quite human: Infrahumanization in response to collective responsibility for intergroup killing.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2006;90:804-818.
7. Čehajić S.,Brown R.,Gonzalez R.What do I care? Perceived ingroup responsibility and dehumanization as predictors of empathy felt for the victim group.Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 2009;12:715-729.
8. Cikara M.,Eberhardt J.L.,Fiske S.T.From agents to objects: Sexist attitudes and neural responses to sexualized targets.Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2011;23:540-551.
9. Citrin L.B.,Roberts T.A.,Fredrickson B.L.The social life of emotions. Tiedens L.Z.Leach C.W., ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2004:203-223.
10. D'Amora D.,Burns-Smith G.Partnering in response to sexual violence: How offender treatment and victim advocacy can work together in response to sexual violence.Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment. 1999;11:293-304.
11. Fairchild K.,Rudman L.A.Everyday stranger harassment and women's objectification.Social Justice Research. 2008;21:338-357.
12. Ferraro K.Women's fear of victimization: Shadow of sexual assault?.Social Forces. 1996;75:667-690.
13. FischerB. S.CullenF. T.TurnerM. G. (2000). The sexual victimization of college women. Retrieved from http://www.ncjrs.gov/txtfiles1/nij/182369.txt.
14. Fisher B.S.,Sloan J.J.Unraveling the fear of victimization among college women: Is the shadow of sexual assault hypothesis supported?.Justice Quarterly. 2003;20:633-659.
15. Fredrickson B.L.,Roberts T.A.Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1997;21:173-206.
16. Freeman N.J.Predictors of rearrest in rapists and child molesters on probation.Criminal Justice and Behavior. 2007;34:752-768.
17. Gelfand M.J.,Fitzgerald L.F.,Drasgow F.The structure of sexual harassment: A confirmatory analysis across cultures and settings.Journal of Vocational Behavior. 1995;47:164-177.
18. Gervais S.J.,Vescio T.K.,Allen J.When are people interchangeable sexual objects? The effect of gender and body type on sexual fungibility.British Journal of Social Psychology. in press;:.
19. Gilbert M.The holocaust: A history of the Jews of Europe during the Second World War. New York, NY: Henry Holt; 1985:.
20. Glick P.,Fiske S.T.The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1996;70:491-512.
21. Glick P.,Fiske S.T.Advances in experimental social psychology. Zanna M.P., ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Academic Press; 2001:115-188.
22. Goff P.A.,Eberhardt J.L.,Williams M.J.,Jackson M.C.Not yet human: Implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;94:292-306.
23. Goldenberg J.L.,Cooper D.P.,Heflick N.A.,Routledge C.,Arndt J.Is objectification always harmful? Reactions to objectifying images and feedback as a function of self-objectification and mortality salience.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2011;47:443-448.
24. Goldenberg J.L.,Heflick N.,Vaes J.,Motyl M.,Greenberg J.Of mice and men, and objectified women: A terror management account of infrahumanization.Group Processes & Intergroup Relations. 2009;12:763-776.
25. Goldenberg J.L.,Roberts T.A.Handbook of experimental existential psychology. Greenberg J.Koole S.L.Pyszczynski T., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2004:71-85.
26. Greenwald A.G.,McGhee D.E.,Schwartz J.L. K.Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1998;74:1464-1480.
27. Greenwald A.G.,Nosek B.A.,Banaji M.R.Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: I. An improved scoring algorithm.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;85:197-216.
28. Greenwald A.G.,Poehlman T.A.,Uhlmann E.,Banaji M.R.Understanding and using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-analysis of predictive validity.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2009;97:17-41.
29. Greenwald A.G.,Smith C.T.,Sriram N.,Bar-Anan Y.,Nosek B.A.Implicit race attitudes predicted vote in the 2008 U.S. presidential election.Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy. 2009;9:241-253.
30. Greitemeyer T.,McLatchie N.Denying humanness to others: A newly discovered mechanism by which violent video games increase aggressive behavior.Psychological Science. 2011;22:659-665.
31. Gruenfeld D.H.,Inesi M.E.,Magee J.C.,Galinsky A.D.Power and the objectification of social targets.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2008;95:111-127.
32. Hall G.C. N.,Hirschman R.The relationship between men's sexual aggression inside and outside the laboratory.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 1994;62:375-380.
33. Harris M.B.,Miller K.C.Gender and perceptions of danger.Sex Roles. 2000;43:843-863.
34. Haslam N.Dehumanization: An integrative review.Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2006;10:252-264.
35. Hebl M.R.,King E.B.,Lin J.The swimsuit becomes us all: Ethnicity, gender, and vulnerability to self-objectification.Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 2004;30:1322-1331.
36. Heflick N.A.,Goldenberg J.L.Objectifying Sarah Palin: Evidence that objectification causes women to be perceived as less competent and fully human.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2009;45:598-601.
37. Heflick N.A.,Goldenberg J.L.,Cooper D.P.,Puvia E.From women to objects: Appearance focus, target gender, and perceptions of warmth.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2010;47:572-581.
38. Hickman S.E.,Muehlenhard C.L.College women's fears and precautionary behaviors relating to acquaintance rape and stranger rape.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1997;21:527-547.
39. Hofmann W.,Gawronski B.,Gschwendner T.,Le H.,Schmitt M.A meta-analysis on the correlation between the Implicit Association Test and explicit self-report measures.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2005;31:1369-1385.
40. Jost J.T.,Rudman L.A.,Blair I.V.,Carney D.R.,Dasgupta N.,Glaser J.,Hardin C.D.Research in organizational behavior, 29. Brief A.P.Staw B.M., ed. New York, NY: Elsevier; 2009:39-69.
41. Kelman H.C.Violence without moral restraint: Reflections on the dehumanization of victims and victimizers.Journal of Social Issues. 1973;29:25-61.
42. Kim D.Y.Voluntary controllability of the Implicit Association Test (IAT).Social Psychology Quarterly. 2003;66:83-96.
43. Leyens J.-P.,Paladino M.P.,Rodríguez-Torres R.,Vaes J.,Demoulin S.,Rodríguez-Pérez A.,Guant R.The emotional side of prejudice: The attribution of secondary emotions to ingroups and outgroups.Personality and Social Psychology Review. 2000;4:186-197.
44. Linz D.G.,Donnerstein E.,Penrod S.Effects of long-term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1988;55:758-768.
45. Loughnan S.,Haslam N.,Murnane T.,Vaes J.,Reynolds C.,Suitner C.Objectification leads to depersonalization: The denial of mind and moral concern to objectified others.European Journal of Social Psychology. 2010;40:709-717.
46. MacMillan R.,Nierobisz A.,Welsh S.Experiencing the streets: Harassment and perceptions of safety among women.Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency. 2000;37:306-322.
47. Malamuth N.M.The Attraction to Sexual Aggression Scale: Part One.Journal of Sex Research. 1989;26:26-49.
48. Malamuth N.M.,Haber S.,Feshbach S.Testing hypotheses regarding rape: Exposure to sexual violence, sex differences, and the "normality" of rape.Journal of Research in Personality. 1980;14:121-137.
49. Malamuth N.M.,Heim M.,Feshbach S.Sexual responsiveness of college students to rape depictions: Inhibitory and disinhibitory effects.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1980;38:399-408.
50. Millburn M.A.,Mather R.,Conrad S.D.The effects of viewing R-rated movie scenes that objectify women on perceptions of date rape.Sex Roles. 2000;43:645-664.
51. Mitchell D.,Angelone D.J.,Hirschman R.,Lilly R.S.,Hall G.C. N.Peer modeling and college men's sexually impositional behavior in the laboratory.Journal of Sex Research. 2002;39:326-333.
52. Moradi B.,Huang Y.Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2008;32:377-398.
53. Nosek B.A.,Greenwald A.G.,Banaji M.R.Social psychology and the unconscious: The automaticity of higher mental processes. Bargh J.A., ed. New York, NY: Psychology Press; 2007:265-292.
54. Nussbaum M.C.Sex and social justice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press; 1999:.
55. Ortner S.Woman, culture, and society. Rosaldo M.Z.Lamphere L., ed. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 1974:68-87.
56. Paladino M.P.,Leyens J.-P.,Rodriguez R.,Rodríguez A.,Gaunt R.,Demoulin S.Differential associations of uniquely human and non-uniquely human emotions with the ingroup and the outgroup.Group Processes and Intergroup Relations. 2002;5:105-117.
57. Plant E.A.,Hyde J.S.,Keltner D.,Devine P.G.The gender stereotyping of emotions.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 2000;24:81-82.
58. Pryor J.B.Sexual harassment proclivities in men.Sex Roles. 1987;17:269-290.
59. Pryor J.B.Sexuality-related measures a compendium. Davis C.M.Yarber W.H.Bauserman R.Schreer G.Davis S.L., ed. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE; 1998:295-298.
60. Reynolds C.,Haslam N.Evidence for an association between women and nature: An analysis of media images and mental representations.Ecopsychology. 2011;3:59-64.
61. Rudman L.A.Implicit measures for social and personality psychology. London, England: SAGE; 2011:.
62. Rudman L.A.,Borgida E.The afterglow of construct accessibility: The behavioral consequences of priming men to view women as sexual objects.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 1995;31:493-517.
63. Rüsch N.,Corrigan P.W.,Todd A.R.,Bodenhausen G.V.Implicit self-stigma in people with mental illness.Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 2010;198:150-153.
64. Rüsch N.,Todd A.R.,Bodenhausen G.V.,Olschewski M.,Corrigan P.W.Automatically activated shame reactions and perceived legitimacy of discrimination: A longitudinal study among people with mental illness.Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 2010;41:60-63.
65. Rüsch N.,Todd A.R.,Bodenhausen G.V.,Weiden P.J.,Corrigan P.W.Implicit versus explicit attitudes toward psychiatric medication: Implications for insight and treatment adherence.Schizophrenia Research. 2009;112:119-122.
66. Sanchez D.T.,Kiefer A.K.Body concerns in and out of the bedroom: Implications for sexual pleasure and problems.Archives of Sexual Behavior. 2007;36:808-820.
67. Silverman J.A.,Mucci R.,Hatha J.Dating violence against adolescent girls and associated substance use, unhealthy weight control, sexual risk behavior, pregnancy, and suicidality.Journal of the American Medical Association. 2001;285:572-579.
68. Sriram N.,Greenwald A.G.The brief Implicit Association Test.Experimental Psychology. 2009;56:283-294.
69. Stanko E.A.Women, crime, and fear.Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 1995;539:46-58.
70. Stewart T.L.,Vassar P.M.,Sanchez D.T.,David S.E.Attitudes toward women's societal roles moderates the effect of gender cues on target individuation.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2000;79:143-157.
71. Strelan P.,Hargreaves D.Women who objectify other women: The vicious circle of objectification?.Sex Roles. 2005;52:707-712.
72. Szymanski D.M.,Henning S.L.The role of self-objectification in women's depression: A test of objectification theory.Sex Roles. 2007;56:45-53.
73. TiadenP.ThoennesN. (1998). Prevalence, incidence, and consequences of violence against women: Findings from the National Violence against Women Survey. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED434980.pdf.
74. Tiggemann M.,Kuring J.K.The role of body objectification in disordered eating and depressed mood.British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2004;43:299-311.
75. Vaes J.,Paladino P.,Puvia E.Are sexualized female complete human beings? Why males and female dehumanize sexually objectified women.European Journal of Social Psychology. 2011;41:774-785.
76. Viki G.T.,Abrams D.Infra-humanization: Ambivalent sexism and the attribution of primary and secondary emotions to women.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 2003;39:492-499.
77. Ward C.The Attitudes Toward Rape Victims Scale: Construction, validation, and cross-cultural applicability.Psychology of Women Quarterly. 1988;12:127-146.
78. Widman L.,Olson M.A.Uncovering the unacceptable: Exposing the relationship between automatic rape attitudes and sexual assault. 2011;:.