Diabetes Mellitus and Pregnancy

Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric, Sixth Edition

Volumn 2, Issue , 2010, Pages 2644-2661

  Metzger, Boyd E ^a   Phelps, Richard L ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84859021000     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-5583-9.00146-5     Document Type: Chapter

References (167)

1. JL Kitzmiller, L Jovanovic, F Bown, et al. (Eds) (2008) Managing preexisting diabetes and pregnancy: technical reviews and consensus recommendations for care Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association 1-827.
2. T Cundy (2008) Pregnancy loss and neonatal death in women with Type 1 or Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Insulin 3 167-175.
3. JB O'Sullivan and CM Mahan (1964) Criteria for the oral glucose tolerance test in pregnancy. Diabetes 13 278-285.
4. World Health Organization: WHO Expert Committee on Diabetes Mellitus: Second Report, World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 646, 1980.
5. Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study Cooperative Research Group (2008) Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes. N Engl J Med 358 1991-2002.
6. Prevalence of diagnosed diabetes per 100 population, females, by age, United States, 1980–2005. http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/prev/national/tprevfemage.htm Accessed 19 November 2008 [article online]. Available at
7. MM Engelau, WH Herman, PJ Smith, et al. (1995) The epidemiology of diabetes and pregnancy in the U.S., 1988. Diabetes Care 18 1029-1033.
8. JM Lawrence, R Contreras, C Wansu, et al. (2008) Trends in the prevalence of preexisting diabetes and gestational diabetes mellitus among a racially/ethnically diverse population of pregnant women, 1999–2005. Diabetes Care 31 899-904.
9. A Ferrara, HS Kahn, CP Quesenberry, et al. (2004) An increase in the incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus: Northern California, 1991–2000. Obstet Gynecol 103 526-533.
10. D Dabelea, JK Snell-Bergeon, CL Hartsfield, et al. (2005) Increasing prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) over time and by birth cohort. Diabetes Care 28 579-584.
11. BE Metzger and DR Coustan Organizing Committee (1998) Summary and recommendations of the Fourth International Workshop Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 21(Suppl 2), B161-B167.
12. American Diabetes Association (2004) Gestational diabetes mellitus: Position Statement. Diabetes Care 27(Suppl 1), S88-S90.
13. D Getahun, C Nath, CV Ananth, et al. (2008) Gestational diabetes in the United States: Temporal trends 1989 through 2004. Am J Obstet Gynecol 195 525e1–525e6
14. BE Metzger, NH Cho and WJ Brickman (2004) The rising tide of diabetes mellitus: Implications for women of all ages. EA Reece, DR Coustan, SG Gabbe,(Eds) Diabetes in Women ed 3 Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 9-26.
15. N Freinkel (1980) The Banting Lecture 1980: of pregnancy and progeny. Diabetes 29 1023-1035.
16. PM Catalano, ED Tyzbir, RR Wolfe, et al. (1993) Carbohydrate metabolism during pregnancy in control subjects and women with gestational diabetes. Am J Physiol 264 E60-E67.
17. TA Buchanan, BE Metzger, N Freinkel, et al. (1990) Insulin sensitivity and β-cell responsiveness to glucose during late pregnancy in lean and moderately obese women with normal glucose tolerance or mild gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 162 1008-1014.
18. PM Catalano, ED Tyzbir, NM Roman, et al. (1991) Longitudinal changes in insulin release and insulin resistance in nonobese pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 165 1667-1672.
19. PM Catalano, L Huston, SB Amini, et al. (1999) Longitudinal changes in glucose metabolism during pregnancy in obese women with normal glucose tolerance and gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 180 903-916.
20. L Jovanovic, RH Knopp, Z Brown, et al. (2001) Declining insulin requirement in the first trimester of diabetic pregnancy. Diabetes Care 24 1130-1136.
21. PM Catalano, NM Drago and SB Amini (1998) Longitudinal changes in pancreatic β-cell function and metabolic clearance rate of insulin in pregnant women with normal and abnormal glucose tolerance. Diabetes Care 21 403-408.
22. RK Kalkhoff, AH Kissebah and HJ Kim (1978) Carbohydrate and lipid metabolism during normal pregnancy: Relationship to gestational hormone action. Semin Perinatol 2 291-307.
23. J Lepercq, M Cauzac, N Lahlou, et al. (1988) Overexpression of placental leptin in diabetic pregnancy: A critical role for insulin. Diabetes 47 847-850.
24. L Eriksson, F Frankenne, S Eden, et al. (1989) Growth hormone 24-h serum profiles during pregnancy: Lack of pulsatility for the secretion of the placental variant. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 96 949-953.
25. WE Nolten, MD Lindheimer, PA Rueckert, et al. (1980) Diurnal patterns and regulation of cortisol secretion in pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 51 466-472.
26. JP Kirwan, S Hauguel-DeMouzon, JC Challier, et al. (2002) TNF-alpha is a predictor of insulin-resistance in human pregnancy. Diabetes 51 2207-2213.
27. R Retnakaran, AJGN Hanley, N Raif, et al. (2005) Adiponectin and beta cell dysfunction in gestational diabetes: pathophysiological implications. Diabetologia 48 993-1001.
28. K Rabe, M Lehrke, KG Parhofer, et al. (2008) Adipokines and insulin resistance. Mol Med 14 741-751.
29. LA Barbour, CE Mccurdy, L Teri, et al. (2007) Cellular mechanisms for insulin resistance in normal pregnancy and gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S112-S119.
30. EW Page (1969) Human fetal nutrition and growth. Am J Obstet Gynecol 104 378-387.
31. M Young (1975) Placental transfer of glucose and amino acids. RA Camerini-Davalos, HS Cole,(Eds) Early Diabetes in Early Life New York: Academic Press 237-242.
32. GE Shambaugh III, SC Mrozak and N Freinkel (1977) Fetal fuels. I. Utilization of ketones by isolated tissues at various stages of maturation and maternal nutrition during late gestation. Metabolism 26 623-636.
33. GE Shambaugh III, MC Angulo and RR Koehler (1984) Fetal fuels. VII. Ketone bodies inhibit the synthesis of purines in fetal rat brain. Am J Physiol 247 E111-E117.
34. HW Berendes (1975) Effect of maternal acetonuria on IQ of offspring. RA Camerini-Davalos, HS Cole,(Eds) Early Diabetes in Early Life New York: Academic Press 135-140.
35. T Rizzo, BE Metzger, WJ Burns, et al. (1991) Correlations between antepartum maternal metabolism and intelligence of offspring. N Engl J Med 325 911-916.
36. JL Mills, L Jovanovic, R Knopp, et al. (1998) Physiological reduction in fasting plasma glucose concentration in the first trimester of normal pregnancy: The Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study. Metabolism 47 1140-1144.
37. E Paretti, F Mecacci, M Papini, et al. (2001) Third-trimester maternal glucose levels from diurnal profiles in nondiabetic pregnancies. Diabetes Care 24 1319-1323.
38. M Hod and Y Yogev (2007) Goals of metabolic management of gestational diabetes: Is it all about sugar? Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S180-S187.
39. BE Metzger, V Ravnikar, R Vilesis, et al. (1982) Accelerated starvation and the skipped breakfast in late normal pregnancy. Lancet 1 588-592.
40. DM Shoengold, RH DeFiore and RC Parlett (1978) Free amino acids in plasma throughout pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 131 490-499.
41. BE Metzger, RL Phelps, N Freinkel, et al. (1980) Effects of gestational diabetes on diurnal profiles of plasma glucose, lipids and individual amino acids. Diabetes Care 3 402-409.
42. TA Buchanan, BE Metzger and N Freinkel (1990) Accelerated starvation in late pregnancy: A comparison between obese women with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 162 1015-1020.
43. JL Kitzmiller, L Jovanovic, F Bown, et al. (Eds) (2008) Technical Reviews and Consensus Recommendations for Care, Part 2: Management of diabetic/medical complications in pregnancy: Diabetic nephropathy and pregnancy. Managing Preexisting Diabetes and Pregnancy: Technical Reviews and Consensus Recommendations for Care Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association 374-399.
44. RK Kalkhoff, E Kandaraki, PG Morrow, et al. (1988) Relationship between neonatal birth weight and maternal plasma amino acid profiles in lean and obese nondiabetic women and in type I diabetic women. Metabolism 37 234-239.
45. J Pedersen (1977) The Pregnant Diabetic and Her Newborn: Problems and Management. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins
46. N Freinkel and BE Metzger (1979) Pregnancy as a tissue culture experience: The critical implications of maternal metabolism for fetal development. K Elliot, M O’Connor,(Eds) Pregnancy Metabolism, Diabetes and the Fetus. CIBA Foundation Symposium No. 63 Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica 3-23.
47. BE Metzger and TA Buchanan (1990) From research to practice: Diabetes and birth defects: Insights from the 1980s, prevention in the 1990s. Diabetes Spectrum 3 150-184. editors
48. JL Mills, JL Simpson, SG Driscoll, et al. (1988) The NICHHD-Diabetes in Early Pregnancy Study: Incidence of spontaneous abortion among normal women and insulin-dependent diabetic women whose pregnancies were identified within 21 days of conception. N Engl J Med 319 1617-1623.
49. MF Greene, JW Hare, JP Cloherty, et al. (1989) First trimester hemoglobin A1c and risk for major malformations and spontaneous abortion in diabetic pregnancy. Teratology 39 225-231.
50. TR Lappin, GA Savage, BE Metzger, et al., for the HAPO Study Cooperative Research Group (2006) Normative values of hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) in non-diabetic pregnancy (24–32 wks gestation): Data from the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) Study. Diabetes 55(Suppl 1), A217.
51. JG Ray, TE O’Brien and WS Chan (2001) Preconception care and the risk of congenital anomalies in the offspring of women with diabetes mellitus: A meta-analysis. Q J Med 94 435-444.
52. WH Herman, NK Janz, MP Becker, et al. (1999) Diabetes and pregnancy: Preconception care, pregnancy outcomes, resource utilization and costs. J Reprod Med 44 33-38.
53. MR Loeken (2005) Current perspectives on the causes of neural tube defects resulting from diabetic pregnancy. Am J Med Genet C Semin Med Genet 135C 77-87.
54. A Correa, SM Gilboa, LM Besser, et al. (2008) Diabetes and birth defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 199 237e1–237e9
55. TA Buchanan, KM Denno, GF Sipes, et al. (1994) Diabetic teratogenesis: in vitro evidence for a multifactorial etiology with little contribution from glucose per se. Diabetes 43 656-660.
56. UJ Eriksson and LAH Borg (1993) Diabetes and embryonic malformations: Role of substrate-induced free-oxygen radical production for dysmorphogenesis in cultured rat embryos. Diabetes 42 411-419.
57. T Buchanan, JK Schemmer and N Freinkel (1986) Embryotoxic effects of brief maternal insulin-hypoglycemia during organogenesis in the rat. J Clin Invest 78 643-649.
58. PM Catalano, A Thomas, L Huston-Presley, et al. (2003) Increased fetal adiposity: A very sensitive marker of abnormal in utero development. Am J Obstet Gynecol 189 1698-1704.
59. JP Elliot, TJ Garite and RK Freeman (1982) Ultrasonic prediction of fetal macrosomia in diabetic patients. Obstet Gynecol 60 159-164.
60. PM Catalano, AJ Thomas, LP Huston, et al. (1998) Effect of maternal metabolism on fetal growth and body composition. Diabetes Care 21(Suppl 2), B85-B90.
61. MB Landon, J Sonek, P Foy, et al. (1991) Sonographic measurement of fetal humeral soft tissue thickness in pregnancy complicated by GDM. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 66-70.
62. JS Abramowicz, DM Sherer and JR Woods Jr (1993) Ultrasonographic measurement of cheek-to-cheek diameter in fetal growth disturbances. Am J Obstet Gynecol 162 405-408.
63. SL Kjos and UM Schaefer-Graf (2007) Modified therapy for gestational diabetes using high-risk and low-risk fetal abdominal circumference growth to select strict versus relaxed maternal glycemic targets. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S200-S205.
64. H Reiher, K Fuhrmann, S Noack, et al. (1983) Age-dependent insulin secretion of the endocrine pancreas in vitro from fetuses of diabetic and nondiabetic patients. Diabetes Care 6 446-451.
65. BE Metzger (1991) Biphasic effects of maternal metabolism on fetal growth: The quintessential expression of “fuel mediated teratogenesis.”. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 99-105.
66. JB Susa, C Neave, P Sehgal, et al. (1984) Chronic hyperinsulinemia in the fetal rhesus monkey: Effects of physiologic hyperinsulinemia on fetal growth and composition. Diabetes 33 656-660.
67. J Verhaeghe, R Van Bree, E Van Herck, et al. (1993) C-peptide, insulin-like growth factors I and II and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 in umbilical cord serum: correlations with birth weight. Am J Obstet Gynecol 169 89-97.
68. DJ Pettitt, HR Baird, KA Aleck, et al. (1983) Excessive obesity in offspring of Pima Indian women with diabetes during pregnancy. N Engl J Med 308 242-245.
69. BL Silverman, LP Purdy and BE Metzger (1996) The intrauterine environment: Implications for the offspring of diabetic mothers. Diabetes Rev 4 21-35.
70. DJ Pettitt, WC Knowler, PH Bennett, et al. (1987) Obesity in offspring of diabetic Pima Indian women despite normal birth weight. Diabetes Care 10 76-80.
71. BL Silverman, T Rizzo, OC Green, et al. (1991) Long-term prospective evaluation of offspring of diabetic mothers. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 121-125.
72. TA Hillier, KL Pedula, MM Schmidt, et al. (2007) Childhood obesity and metabolic imprinting: the ongoing effects of maternal hyperglycemia. Diabetes Care 30 2287-2292.
73. DJ Pettitt, KA Aleck, HR Baird, et al. (1988) Congenital susceptibility for NIDDM: Role of intrauterine environment. Diabetes 37 622-628.
74. BL Silverman, NH Cho and BE Metzger (1995) Impaired glucose tolerance in adolescent offspring of diabetic mothers: Relationship to fetal hyperinsulinism. Diabetes Care 18 611-618.
75. BE Metzger, TA Buchanan, DR Coustan, et al. (2007) Summary and recommendations of the Fifth International Workshop Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S251-S260.
76. N Freinkel and BE Metzger (1985) Gestational diabetes: Problems in classification and implications for long-range prognosis. M Vranic, CH Hollenberg, G Steiner,(Eds) Comparison of Type I and Type II Diabetes: Similarities and Dissimilarities in Etiology, Pathogenesis and Complications New York: Plenum 47-64.
77. O Langer and M Hod (1996) Management of gestational diabetes mellitus. Obstet Gynecol Clin 23 137-159.
78. P White (1949) Pregnancy complicating diabetes. Am J Med 7 609-616.
79. JW Hare (1991) Complicated diabetes complicating pregnancy. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol 5 3449-3467.
80. RL Phelps, P Sakol, BE Metzger, et al. (1986) Changes in diabetic retinopathy during pregnancy. Correlations with regulation of hyperglycemia. Arch Ophthalmol 104 1806-1810.
81. EY Chew, JL Mills, BE Metzger, et al. (1995) Metabolic control and progression of retinopathy: The diabetes in early pregnancy study. Diabetes Care 18 631-637.
82. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group (2000) Effect of pregnancy on microvascular complications in the diabetes control and complications trial. Diabetes Care 23 1084-1091.
83. B Rosenn, M Miodovnik, G Kranias, et al. (1992) Progression of diabetic retinopathy in pregnancy: Association with hypertension in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 166 1214-1218.
84. EA Reece, DR Coustan, JP Hayslett, et al. (1988) Diabetic nephropathy: Pregnancy performance and fetomaternal outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 159 56-66.
85. DR McCance, AI Traub, JM Harley, et al. (1989) Urinary albumin excretion in diabetic pregnancy. Diabetologia 32 236-239.
86. AF Macleod, SA Smith, PH Sonksen, et al. (1990) The problem of autonomic neuropathy in diabetic pregnancy. Diabet Med 7 80-82.
87. KEJ Airaksinen, LM Anttila, MK Linnaluoto, et al. (1990) Autonomic influence on pregnancy outcome in IDDM. Diabetes Care 13 756-761.
88. T Siddiqi, B Rosenn, F Mimouni, et al. (1991) Hypertension during pregnancy in insulin-dependent diabetic women. Obstet Gynecol 77 514-519.
89. JW Hare and P White (1977) Pregnancy in diabetes complicated by vascular disease. Diabetes 26 953-955.
90. EA Reece, JF Egan, DR Coustan, et al. (1986) Coronary artery disease in diabetic pregnancies. Am J Obstet Gynecol 154 150-151.
91. AA Nasrat, FD Johnstone and SAM Hasan (1988) Is random plasma glucose an efficient screening test for abnormal glucose tolerance in pregnancy? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 95 855-860.
92. L Cousins, BJ Dattel, DR Hollingsworth, et al. (1984) Glycosylated hemoglobin as a screening test for carbohydrate intolerance in pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 150 455-460.
93. AB Roberts, JR Baker, P Metcalf, et al. (1990) Fructosamine compared with a glucose load as a screening test for gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 76 773-775.
94. ME Lamar, TJ Kuehl, AT Cooney, et al. (1999) Jelly beans as an alternative to a fifty-gram glucose beverage for gestational diabetes screening. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181 1154-1157.
95. PAM Weiss, HM Hofmann, RR Winter, et al. (1986) Diagnosis and treatment of gestational diabetes according to amniotic fluid insulin levels. Arch Gynecol 239 81-91.
96. MW Carpenter, JA Canick, J Star, et al. (1996) Fetal hyperinsulinism at 14–20 weeks and subsequent gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 87 89-93.
97. National Diabetes Data Group (1979) Classification and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus and other categories of glucose intolerance. Diabetes 28 1039-1057.
98. MW Carpenter and DR Coustan (1982) Criteria for screening tests for gestational diabetes mellitus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 159 768-773.
99. M Sermer, CD Naylor, DJ Gare, et al. (1995) Impact of increasing carbohydrate intolerance on maternal-fetal outcomes in 3637 women without gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 173 146-156.
100. OA Rust, JA Bofill, ME Andrew, et al. (1996) Lowering the threshold for the diagnosis of gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 175 961-965.
101. C Deerochanawong, C Putiyanun, M Wongsuryrat, et al. (1996) Comparison of the National Diabetes Data Group and World Health Organization criteria for detecting gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 39 1070-1073.
102. MI Schmidt, BB Duncan, AJ Reichelt, et al. (2001) Gestational diabetes mellitus diagnosed with a 2-h 75-g OGTT and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Diabetes Care 24 1151-1155.
103. PAM Weiss, M Haeusler, F Kainer, et al. (1998) Toward universal criteria for gestational diabetes: Relationships between seventy-five and one hundred gram glucose loads and between capillary and venous glucose concentrations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 178 830-835.
104. TA Buchanan and PM Catalano (1995) The pathogenesis of GDM: Implications for diabetes after pregnancy. Diabetes Rev 3 584-601.
105. A de Leiva, D Mauricio and R Corcoy (2007) Diabetes-related autoantibodies and gestational diabetes. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S127-S133.
106. K Buschard, I Buch, L Molsted-Pedersen, et al. (1987) Increased incidence of true type I diabetes acquired during pregnancy. Br Med J 294 275-279.
107. NA Beischer, JN Oats, OA Henry, et al. (1991) Incidence and severity of gestational diabetes mellitus according to country of birth in women living in Australia. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 35-38.
108. JR Green, LB Schumacher, IG Pawson, et al. (1991) Influence of maternal body habitus and glucose intolerance on birth weight. Obstet Gynecol 78 235-240.
109. JA Maassen and T Kadowaki (1996) Maternally inherited diabetes and deafness: A new diabetes subtype. Diabetologia 39 375-382.
110. SSP Gebhart, JM Shoffner, D Koontz, et al. (1996) Insulin resistance associated with maternally inherited diabetes and deafness. Metabolism 45 526-531.
111. S Ellard, F Beards, LI Allen, et al. (2000) A high prevalence of glucokinase mutations in gestational diabetic subjects selected by clinical criteria. Diabetologia 43 250-253.
112. RM Watanabe, MH Black, AH Xiang, et al. (2007) Genetics of gestational diabetes mellitus and type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), 134-139.
113. JH Warram, AS Krolewski, MS Gottlieb, et al. (1984) Differences in risk of insulin-dependent diabetes in offspring of diabetic mothers and diabetic fathers. N Engl J Med 311 149-152.
114. IM Evers, EW Braak, HW de Valk, et al. (2002) Risk indicators predictive for severe hypoglycemia during the first trimester of type 1 diabetic pregnancy. Diabetes Care 25 554-559.
115. Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation, Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine, National Academy of Sciences (1990) Nutrition During Pregnancy, Part I: Weight Gain. Washington, DC: National Academy Press pp 10–13
116. JVGA Durnin (1991) Energy requirements of pregnancy. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 152-156.
117. DJ Jenkins, TM Wolever, RH Taylor, et al. (1981) Glycemic index of foods: A physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange. Am J Clin Nutr 34 362-366.
118. ER Mathiesen, B Kinsley, SA Amiel, et al., for the Insulin Aspart Pregnancy Study Group (2007) Maternal glycemic control and hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetic subjects: a randomized trial of insulin aspart versus human insulin in 322 pregnant women. Diabetes Care 30 771-776.
119. JH Anderson Jr, RL Brunelle, VA Koivisto, et al., the Multicenter Insulin Lispro Study Group (1997) Reduction of postprandial hyperglycemia and frequency of hypoglycemia in IDDM patients on insulin-analog treatment. Diabetes 46 265-270.
120. JL Kitzmiller, L Jovanovic, F Bown, et al. (Eds) (2008) Technical Reviews and Consensus Recommendations for Care, Part 1: Managing preexisting diabetes in pregnancy. Managing Preexisting Diabetes and Pregnancy Alexandria, VA: American Diabetes Association 1-268.
121. JW Wyatt, JL Frias, HE Hoyme, et al., for the IONS Study Group (2005) Congential anomaly rate in offspring of mothers with type 1 diabetes treated with insulin lispro during pregnancy. Diabet Med 22 803-807.
122. M Pôyhônen-Alho, T Rônnemaa, J Saltevo, et al. (2007) Use of insulin glargine during pregnancy. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 86 1171-1174.
123. N Price, C Bartlett and M Gillmer (2007) Use of insulin glargine during pregnancy: A case-control pilot study. Brit J Obstet Gynaecol 114 453-457.
124. IW Gallen, A Jaap, M Roland, et al. (2008) Survey of glargine use in 115 pregnant women with Type 1 diabetes. Diabet Med 25 165-169.
125. GD Roversi, M Garginlo, U Nicolini, et al. (1979) A new approach to the treatment of diabetic pregnant women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 135 567-576.
126. CA Combs, E Gunderson, JL Kitzmiller, et al. (1992) Relationship of fetal macrosomia to maternal postprandial glucose control during pregnancy. Diabetes Care 15 1251-1257.
127. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2004) Ultrasonography in pregnancy. ACOG Practice Bulletin #58. Obstet Gynecol 1449-1458.
128. RO Bahado-Singh, R Wapner, E Thom, et al., for the First Trimester Maternal Serum Biochemistry and Fetal Nuchal Translucency Screening (BUN) Study Group (2005) Elevated first-trimester nuchal translucency increases the risk of congenital heart defects. Am J Obstet Gynecol 192 89-95.
129. Y Yaron, M Cherry, RL Kramer, et al. (1999) Second-trimester maternal serum marker screening: maternal serum α-fetoprotein, β-human chorionic gonadotropin, estriol, and their various combinations as predictors of pregnancy outcome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181 968-974.
130. MK Friedberg and NH Silverman (2004) Changing indicators for fetal echocardiography in a University Center population. Prenat Diagn 24 781-786.
131. DA Sacks (2007) Etiology, detection, and management of fetal macrosomia in pregnancies complicated by diabetes. Clin Obstet Gynecol 50 980-989.
132. LD Devoe and CR Jones (2002) Nonstress test: evidence-based use in high-risk pregnancy. Clin Obstet Gynecol 45 986-992.
133. JN Oats (1991) Obstetrical management of patients with diabetes in pregnancy. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol 5 395-411.
134. DJ Pettitt, WC Knowler, HR Baird, et al. (1980) Gestational diabetes: Infant and maternal complications of pregnancy in relation to third-trimester glucose tolerance in Pima Indians. Diabetes Care 3 458-464.
135. M Hod, P Merlob, S Friedman, et al. (1991) Gestational diabetes mellitus: A survey of perinatal complications in the 1980s. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 74-78.
136. CA Crowther, JE Hiller, JR Moss, et al., for the Australian Carbohydrate Intolerance Study in Pregnant Women (ACHOIS) Trial Group (2005) Effect of treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus on pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 352 2477-2486.
137. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (2008) Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 148 759-765.
138. H Kalter (1998) The non-teratogenicity of gestational diabetes. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 12 456-458.
139. UM Schaefer, G Songster, A Xiang, et al. (1997) Congenital malformations in offspring of women with hyperglycemia first detected during pregnancy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 177 165-171.
140. M De Veciana, CA Major, MA Morgan, et al. (1995) Postprandial versus preprandial blood glucose monitoring in women with gestational diabetes mellitus requiring insulin therapy. N Engl J Med 333 1237-1241.
141. CM Peterson and L Jovanovic-Peterson (1991) Percentage of carbohydrate and glycemic response to breakfast, lunch and dinner in women with gestational diabetes. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 172-174.
142. L Jovanovic-Peterson and CM Peterson (1990) Dietary manipulation as a primary treatment strategy for pregnancies complicated by diabetes. J Am Coll Nutr 9 320-325.
143. EA Reece, Z Hagay, KJ Gay, et al. (1993) Do fiber-enriched diabetic diets have glucose-lowering effects in pregnancy? Am J Perinatol 4 272-274.
144. Tieu J, Crowther CA, Middleton P: Dietary advice in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus, Cochrane Database Syst Rev 16:CD006674, 2008.
145. RH Knopp, MS Magee, V Raisys, et al. (1991) Metabolic effects of hypocaloric diets in management of gestational diabetes. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 165-171.
146. S Algert, P Shragg and DR Hollingsworth (1985) Moderate caloric restriction in obese women with gestational diabetes. Obstet Gynecol 65 487-491.
147. A Dornhorst, JSD Nichols, F Probst, et al. (1991) Caloric restriction for the treatment of gestational diabetes. Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 161-164.
148. R Artal (2003) Exercise: The alternative therapeutic intervention for gestational diabetes. Clin Obstet Gynecol 46 479-487.
149. L Jovanovic-Peterson, EP Durak and CM Peterson (1989) Randomized trial of diet versus diet plus cardiovascular conditioning on glucose levels in gestational diabetes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 161 415-419.
150. P Bung, R Artal, N Khodiguian, et al. (1991) Exercise in gestational diabetes: An optional therapeutic approach? Diabetes 40(Suppl 2), 182-185.
151. K Lesser, P Gruppuso, R Terry, et al. (1996) Exercise fails to improve postprandial glycemic excursion in women with gestational diabetes. J Matern Fetal Med 5 211-217.
152. R Artal, RB Catanzaro, JA Gavard, et al. (2007) A lifestyle intervention of weight-gain restriction: Diet and exercise in obese women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 32 596-601.
153. Summary and recommendations of the Second International Workshop Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. Diabetes 34(Suppl 2), 123-126.
154. TR Moore (2007) Glyburide for the treatment of gestational diabetes: A critical appraisal. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S209-S213.
155. JA Rowan, WM Hague, W Gao, et al., for MIG Trial Investigators (2008) Metformin versus insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 358 2003-2015.
156. Z Nachum, I Ben-Shlomo, E Weiner, et al. (1999) Twice daily versus four times daily insulin dose regimens for diabetes in pregnancy: Randomised controlled trial. Br Med J 319 1223-1227.
157. BD Elliott, S Schenker, O Langer, et al. (1994) Comparative placental transport of oral hypoglycemic agents in humans: A model of human placental drug transfer. Am J Obstet Gynecol 171 653-660.
158. O Langer, DL Conway, MD Berkus, et al. (2000) A comparison of glyburide and insulin in women with gestational diabetes. N Engl J Med 343 1134-1138.
159. R Mathur, CJ Alexander, J Yano, et al. (2008) Use of metformin in polycystic ovary syndrome. Am J Obstet Gynecol 199 596-609.
160. MM Agarwal, PF Hughes, J Punnose, et al. (2001) Gestational diabetes screening of a multiethnic, high risk population using glycated proteins. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 51 67-73.
161. JL Kitzmiller, L Dang-Kilduff and MM Taslimi (2007) Gestational diabetes after delivery: short-term management and long-term risks. Diabetes Care 30(Suppl 2), S25-S235.
162. MM Byrne, J Sturis, NM O’Meara, et al. (1995) Insulin secretion in insulin-resistant women with a history of gestational diabetes. Metab Clin Exp 44 1067-1073.
163. MI Harris (1988) Gestational diabetes may represent discovery of preexisting glucose intolerance. Diabetes Care 11 402-411.
164. J Tuomilehto, J Lindstrom, JG Eriksson, et al. (2001) Prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus by changes in lifestyle among subjects with impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 344 1343-1350.
165. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002) Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle or metformin. N Engl J Med 346 393-403.
166. TA Buchanan, AH Xiang, RK Peters, et al. (2002) Preservation of pancreatic beta-cell function and prevention of type 2 diabetes by pharmacological treatment of insulin resistance in high-risk Hispanic women. Diabetes 51 2796-2803.
167. RE Ratner, CA Christophi, BE Metzger, et al., for the Diabetes Prevention Research Group (2008) Prevention of diabetes in women with a history of gestational diabetes: effects of metformin and lifestyle interventions. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93 4774-4779.