Institutional Care for Young Children: Review of Literature and Policy Implications

Social Issues and Policy Review

Volumn 6, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-25

  Dozier, Mary ^a   Zeanah, Charles H ^b   Wallin, Allison R ^a   Shauffer, Carole ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

^b TULANE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Youth Law Center   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84857935767     PISSN: 17512395     EISSN: 17512409     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011.01033.x     Document Type: Article

References (111)

1. Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda: Infant care and the growth of love. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press.
2. Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. Oxford, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum.
3. Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, J. (2008). Earlier is better: A meta-analysis of 70 years of intervention improving cognitive development in institutionalized children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73, 279-293. doi:.
4. Beckett, C., Castle, J., Rutter, M., & Barke-Sonuga, E. J. (2010). Institutional deprivation, specific cognitive functions, and scholastic achievement: English and Romanian Adoptee (ERA) study findings. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75, 125-142. doi:.
5. Beckett, C., Maughan, B., Rutter, M., Castle, J., Colvert, E., Groothues, C., Kreppner, J., Stevens, S., O'Connor, T. G., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2006). Do the effects of early severe deprivation on cognition persist into early adolescence? Findings from the English and Romanian Adoptees Study. Child Development, 77, 696-711. doi:.
6. Bernard, K., Dozier, M., Bick, J., Lewis-Morrarty, E., Lindhiem, O., & Carlson, E. (In press). Enhancing attachment organization among maltreated infants: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Child Development.
7. Boersma, B., & Wit, J. M. (1997). Catch-up growth. Endocrine Review, 18, 646-661.
8. Boswell, J. (1988). The kindness of strangers: The abandonment of children in Western Europe from late antiquity to the Renaissance. New York: Pantheon Books.
9. Bowlby, J. (19691982). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
10. Browne, K. (2009). The risk of harm to young children in institutional care. Retrieved March 2, 2010 from Save the Children website:.
11. Browne, K., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Johnson, R., & Ostergren, M. (2006). Overuse of institutional care for children in Europe? British Medical Journal, 332, 485-487.
12. Bruce, J., Fisher, P. A., Pears, K. C., & Levine, S. (2009). Morning cortisol levels in preschool-aged foster children: Differential effects of maltreatment type. Developmental Psychobiology, 51, 14-23. doi:.
13. Calkins, S. D. (2011). Caregiving as coregulation: Psychobiological processes and child functioning. In A. Booth, S. M. McHale, & N. S. Landale (Eds.), Biosocial foundations of family processes. National symposium on family issues (pp. 49-59). New York: Springer.
14. Carlson, M., & Earls, F. (1997). Psychological and neuroendocrinological sequelae of early social deprivation in institutionalized children in Romania. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 419-428.
15. Carter, R. (2005). Family matters: A study of institutional childcare in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. London: Everychild.
16. Chaffin, M., Hanson, R., Saunders, B. E., Nichols, T., Barnett, D., Zeanah, C., Berliner, L., Egeland, B., Newman, E., Lyon, T., LeTourneau, E., & Miller-Perrin, C. (2006). Report of the APSAC task force on attachment therapy, reactive attachment disorder, and attachment problems. Child Maltreatment, 11, 76-89. doi:.
17. Chapin, H. D. (1915). Are institutions for infants really necessary? Journal of the American Medical Association, LXIV, 1-3.
18. Chisholm, K. (1998). A three year follow-up of attachment and indiscriminate friendliness in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Child Development, 69, 1092-1106. doi:.
19. Chisholm, K., Carter, M. C., Ames, E. W., & Morison, S. J. (1995). Attachment security and indiscriminately friendly behavior in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 283-294. doi:.
20. Cline, F. (1992). Hope for high risk and rage filled children. Evergreen, CO: EC Publications.
21. Crenson, M. A. (1998). Building the invisible orphanage: A prehistory of the American welfare system. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
22. Dobrova-Krol, N. A., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2010). The importance of quality of care: Effects of perinatal HIV infection and early institutional rearing on preschoolers' attachment and indiscriminate friendliness. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 1368-1376. doi:.
23. Dobrova-Krol, N. A., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Cyr, C., & Juffer, F. (2008). Physical growth delays and stress dysregulation in stunted and non-stunted Ukrainian institution-reared children. Infant Behavior and Development, 31, 539-553. doi:.
24. Dozier, M., Lindhiem, O., Lewis, E., Bick, J., Bernard, K., & Peloso, E. (2009). Effects of a foster parent training program on children's attachment behaviors: Preliminary evidence from a randomized clinical trial. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 26, 321-332. doi:.
25. Dozier, M., Manni, M. Gordon, M. K., Peloso, E., Gunnar, M. R., Stovall-McClough, K. C., Eldreth, D., & Levine, S. (2006). Foster children's diurnal production of cortisol: An exploratory study. Child Maltreatment, 11, 189-197. doi:.
26. Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lewis, E., Laurenceau, J., & Levine, S. (2008). Effects of an attachment-based intervention on the cortisol production of infants and toddlers in foster care. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 845-859. doi:.
27. Dozier, M., Peloso, E., Lindhiem, O., Gordon, M. K., Manni, M., Sepulveda, S., Ackerman, J., Bernier, A., & Levine, S. (2006). Developing evidence-based interventions for foster children: An example of a randomized clinical trial with infants and toddlers. Journal of Social Issues, 62, 767-785. doi:.
28. Fakhourya, W., & Priebea, S. (2007). Deinstitutionalization and reinstitutionalization: Major changes in the provision of mental healthcare. Psychiatry, 6, 313-316.
29. Fearon, R. P., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Lapsley, A. M., & Roisman, G. I. (2010). The significance of insecure attachment and disorganization in the development of children's externalizing behavior: A meta-analytic study. Child Development, 81, 435-456. doi:.
30. Fernald, L. C. H., Gertler, P. J., & Neufeld, L. M. (2008). Role of conditional cash transfer programmes for child health, growth, and development: An analysis of Mexico's Oportunidades. Lancet, 371, 828-837. doi:.
31. Fisher, L., Ames, E. W., Chisholm, K., & Savole, L. (1997). Problems reported by parents of Romanian orphans adopted to British Columbia. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 20, 67-82. doi:.
32. Fisher, P. A., van Ryzin, M. J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2011). Mitigating HPA axis dysregulation associated with placement changes in Foster Care. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 36, 531-539.
33. Fox, N. A., Almas, A. N., Degnan, K. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011). The effects of severe psychosocial deprivation and foster care intervention on cognitive development at 8 years of age: Findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 476-503.
34. Gleason, M. M., Fox, N. A., Drury, S., Smyke, A. T., Egger, H. L., Nelson, C. A., Gregas, M. C., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011). The validity of evidence-derived criteria for reactive attachment disorder: Indiscriminately social/disinhibited and emotionally withdrawn/inhibited types. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 52, 216-231.
35. Goldfarb, W. (1945). Effects of psychological deprivation in infancy and subsequent stimulation. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 102, 18-33.
36. Greenough, W. T., Black, J. E., & Wallace, C. S. (1987). Experience and brain development. Child Development, 58, 539-559. doi:.
37. Greenwell, F. (2006). The impact of child welfare reform on child abandonment and deinstitutionalization, Romania 1990-2000. Annales de Demographie Historique, 1, 133-157.
38. Groark, C. J., Muhamedrahimov, R. J., Palmov, O. I., Nikiforova, N. V., & McCall, R. B. (2005). Improvements in early care in Russian orphanages and their relationship to observed behaviors. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26, 96-109. doi:.
39. Gunnar, M. R., Bruce, J., & Grotevant, H. D. (2000). International adoption of institutionally reared children: Research and policy. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 677-693. doi:.
40. Gunnar, M. R., Frenn, K., Wewerka, S., & van Ryzin, M. J. (2009). Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10-12-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 62-75. doi:.
41. Gunnar, M. R., Morison, S. J., Chisholm, K., & Schuder, M. (2001). Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 611-628. doi:.
42. Gunnar, M. R., Van Dulmen, M. H. M., & The International Adoption Project Team. (2007). Behavior problems in postinstitutionalized internationally adopted children. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 129-148. doi:.
43. Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515-538. doi:.
44. Hacsi, T. A. (1997). Second home: Orphan asylums and poor families in America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
45. Hodges, J., & Tizard, B. (1989). Social and family relationships of ex-institutional adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 30, 77-97. doi:.
46. Hofer, M. (1994). Hidden regulators in attachment, separation, and loss. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59, 192-207. doi:.
47. Hofer, M. (2006). Psychobiological roots of early attachment. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15, 84-88. doi:.
48. Hrdy, S. B. (1999). Mother nature: Maternal instincts and how they shape the human species. New York: Ballantine Books.
49. Johnson, D. E., Albers, L. H., Iverson, S., Mathers, M., Dole, K., Georgieff, M. K., Hostetter, M. K., & Miller, L. C. (1996). Health status of U.S. adopted Eastern European (EE) orphans. Pediatric Research, 39, 134A.
50. Johnson, D. E., Guthrie, D., Smyke, A., Koga, S., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2010). Growth and the relationships between auxology, caregiving environment and cognition in socially deprived Romanian infants and toddlers randomized to foster vs. ongoing institutional care. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 164, 507-516.
51. Harden, B. J. (2002). Congregate care for infants and toddlers: Shedding new light on an old question. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23, 476-495. doi:.
52. Juffer, F., & van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2005). Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 293, 2501-2515. doi:.
53. Keck, G. C., & Kupecky, R. (1995). Adopting the hurt child. Colorado Springs, CO: Pinon Press.
54. Kligman, G. (1998). The politics of duplicity: Controlling reproduction in Ceaucsescu's Romania. Berkeley: University of California Press.
55. Kreppner, J. M., O'Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., & The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. (2001). Can inattention/overactivity be an institutional deprivation syndrome? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 513-528. doi:.
56. Kreppner, J. M., Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Colvert, E., Groothues, C., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2007). Normality and impairment following profound early institutional deprivation: A longitudinal follow-up into early adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 43, 931-946. doi:.
57. Levine, S., Wiener, S. G., & Coe, C. L. (1993). Temporal and social factors influencing behavioral and hormonal responses to separation in mother and infant squirrel monkeys. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 18, 297-306. doi:.
58. Lilienfield, S. O. (2007). Psychological treatments that cause harm. Psychological Science, 2, 53-70. doi:.
59. Marshall, P. J., Fox, N. A., & the BEIP Core Group. (2004). A comparison of the elecroencephalogram between institutionalized and community children in Romania. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1327-1338. doi:.
60. Marshall, P. J., Reeb, B. C., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2008). Effects of early intervention on EEG power and coherence in previously institutionalized children in Romania. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 861-880. doi:.
61. st century. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
62. McLaughlin, K. A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., Sheridan, M. A., Marshall, P., & Nelson, C. A. (2010). Delayed maturation in brain electrical activity partially explains the association between early environmental deprivation and symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 329-336. doi:.
63. Moulson, M. C., Westerlund, A., Fox, N. A., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2009). The effects of early experience on face recognition: An event-related potential study of institutionalized children in Romania. Child Development, 80, 1039-1056. doi:.
64. Muhamedrahimov, R. J. (1999). New attitudes: Infant care facilities in St. Petersburg, Russia. In J. D. Osofsky & H. E. Fitzgerald (Eds.), WAIMH Handbook of infant mental health. Vol. 1. Perspectives on infant mental health (pp. 245-294). New York: Wiley.
65. Nelson, C. A. (2007). A neurobiological perspective on early human deprivation. Child Development Perspectives, 1, 13-18. doi:.
66. Nelson, C. A., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Marshall, P. J., Smyke, A. T., & Guthrie, D. (2007). Cognitive recovery in socially deprived young children: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Science, 21, 1937-1940. doi:.
67. O'Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., Beckett, C., Keaveney, L., Kreppner, J. M., & The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. (2000). The effects of severe global privation on cognitive competence: Extension and longitudinal follow-up. Child Development, 71, 376-390. doi:.
68. O'Connor, T. G., Rutter, M., & The English and Romanian Adoptees Study Team. (2000). Attachment disorder behavior following early severe deprivation: Extension and longitudinal follow-up. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 703-712. doi:.
69. O'Connor, T. G., & Zeanah, C. H. (2003). Attachment disorders: Assessment strategies and treatment approaches. Attachment and Human Development, 5, 223-244. doi:.
70. Pignotti, M., & Mercer, J. (2007). Holding therapy and dyadic developmental psychotherapy are not supported and acceptable social work interventions: A systematic research synthesis revisited. Research on Social Work Practice, 17, 513-519. doi:.
71. Provence, S., & Lipton, R. C. (1962). Infants in institutions. Oxford: International University Press.
72. Rutter, M. (1998). Developmental catch-up, and deficit, following adoption after severe global privation. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 465-476. doi:.
73. Rutter, M., Colvert, E., Kreppner, J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Groothues, C., Hawkins, A., O'Connor, T. G., Stevens, S. E., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S. (2007). Early adolescent outcomes for institutionally-deprived and non-deprived adoptees. I: Disinhibited attachment. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 48, 17-30. doi:.
74. Rutter, M., Kreppner, J. M., & O'Connor, T. G. (2001). Specificity and heterogeneity in children's responses to profound institutional privation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 97-103. doi:.
75. Rutter, M., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Beckett, C., Castle, J., Kreppner, J., Kumsta, R., Schlotz, W., Stevens, S., & Bell, C. A. (2010). Deprivation-specific psychological patterns: Effects of institutional deprivation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75, 1-229.
76. Save the Children. (2009). Keeping children out of harmful institutions: Why we should be investing in family-based care. London: Save the Children.
77. Shonkoff, J. P., & Bales, S. N. (2011). Science does not speak for itself: Translating child development research for the public and its policymakers. Child Development, 82, 17-32. doi:.
78. Shonkoff, J., Boyce, W. T., & McEwen, B. (2009). Neuroscience, molecular biology, and the childhood roots of health disparities: Building a new framework for health promotion and disease prevention. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2252-2259. doi:.
79. Skeels, H. M., & Dye, H. B. (1939). A study of the effects of differential stimulation on mentally retarded children. Proceedings & Addresses of the American Association on Mental Deficiency, 44, 114-136.
80. Smith, E. P. (1995). Bring back the orphanages? What policymakers of today can learn from the past. Child Welfare, 74, 115-142.
81. Smyke, A. T., Dumitrescu, A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2002). Attachment disturbances in young children. I: The continuum of caretaking casualty. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 972-982. doi:.
82. Smyke, A. T., Koga, S. F., Johnson, D. E., Fox, N. A., Marshal, P. J., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2007). The caregiving context in institution-reared and family-reared infants and toddlers in Romania. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 210-218. doi:.
83. Smyke, A. T., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2009). Psychosocial interventions: Bucharest Early Intervention Project. In D. Schechter & M. M. Gleason (Eds.), Infant and early childhood mental health, child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North Carolina, 18, (pp. 721-734). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders.
84. Smyke, A. T., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Nelson, C. A., & Guthrie, D. (2010). Placement in foster care enhances quality of attachment among young institutionalized children. Child Development, 81, 212-223. doi:.
85. Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Schlotz, W., & Rutter, M. (2010). Physical growth and maturation following early severe institutional deprivation: Do they mediate specific psychopathological effects Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 75, 143-166. doi:.
86. Spitz, R. A. (1945). Hospitalizm: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of Children, 2, 313-342.
87. Stovall, K. C., & Dozier M. (2000). The development of attachment in new relationships: Single subject analyses for ten foster infants. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 133-156. doi:.
88. Stovall-McClough, K. C., & Dozier, M. (2004). Forming attachments in foster care: Infant attachment behaviors in the first two months of placement. Development and Psychopathology, 16, 253-271. doi:.
89. The St. Petersburg -USA Orphanage Research Team (2008). The effects of early social emotional and relationship experience on the development of young orphanage children. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 73, 1-262.
90. Tizard, B., & Hodges, J. (1978). The effect of early institutional rearing on the development of eight year old children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 19, 99-118. doi:.
91. Tobis, D. (2000). Moving from institutions to community-based social services in Central and Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. Washington, DC: The World Bank.
92. Trexler, R. C. (1973). The foundlings of Florence, 1395-1455. History of Childhood Quarterly, 1, 259-284.
93. United Nations General Assembly. (2010). Guidelines for the alternative care of children (Resolution No. 64/142). Retrieved March 10, 2010 from.
94. van den Dries, L., Juffer, F., van Ijzendoorn, M., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J. (2009). Fostering security? A meta-analysis of attachment in adopted children. Children and Youth Services Review, 31, 410-421. doi:.
95. van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Juffer, F. (2007). Plasticity of growth in height, weight and head circumference: Meta-analytic evidence of massive catch-up of children's physical growth after adoption. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 28, 334-343. doi:.
96. van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2006). The Emanuel Miller Memorial lecture 2006: Adoption as intervention. Meta-analytic evidence for massive catch-up and plasticity in physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 47, 1228-1245. doi:.
97. van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Luijk, M., & Juffer, F. (2008). IQ of children growing up in children's homes: A meta-analysis on IQ delays in orphanages. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 54, 341-366. doi:.
98. van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. (1999). Disorganized attachment in early childhood: Meta-analysis of precursors, concomitants, and sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 225-249. doi:.
99. Vorria, P., Papaligoura, Z., Sarafidou, J., Kopakaki, M., Dunn, J., van Ijzendoorn, M. H., & Kontopoulou, A. (2006). The development of adopted children after institutional care: A follow-up study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 1246-1253. doi:.
100. Vorria, P., Rutter, M., Pickles, A., Wolkind, S., & Hobsbaum, A. (1998). A comparative study of Greek children in long-term residential group care and in two-parent families: 1. Social, emotional, and behavioural differences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 225-236. doi:.
101. Whetten, K., Ostermann, J., Whetten, R. A., Pence, B. W., O'Donnell, K., Messer, L. C., Thielman, N. M., & The Positive Outcomes for Orphans (POFO) Research Team. (2009). A comparison of the wellbeing of orphans and abandoned children ages 6-12 in institutional and community-based care settings in 5 less wealthy nations. PLoS ONE, 4, e8169. doi:.
102. Williamson, J., & Greenberg, A. (2010). Families, not orphanages. Retrieved March 2, 2010 from Better Care Network website:.
103. Wilton Park Conference. (2009). The neglected agenda: Protecting children without adequate parental care. Retrieved March 10, 2010 from Child Rights Information Network:.
104. Wismer Fries, A. B., Shirtcliff, E. A., & Pollak, S. D. (2008). Neuroendocrine dysregulation following early social deprivation in children. Developmental Psychobiology, 50, 588-599. doi:.
105. Yablonski, J., & Bell, B. (2009). Responding to vulnerability: The role of social welfare services and cash transfers. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies, 4, 77-80. doi:.
106. Zeanah, C. H. (2000). Disturbances of attachment in young children adopted from institutions. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 21, 230-236.
107. Zeanah, C. H., Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., Smyke, A. T., Marshall, P., Parker, S. W., & Koga, S. (2003). Designing research to study the effects of institutionalization on brain and behavioral development: The Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 885-907. doi:.
108. Zeanah, C. H., & Smyke, A. T. (2005). Building attachment relationships following maltreatment and severe deprivation. In L. J. Berlin, Y. Ziv, L. Amaya-Jackson, & M. T. Greenberg (Eds.), Enhancing early attachments: Theory, research, intervention, and policy (pp. 195-216). New York: Guilford Press.
109. Zeanah C. H., Smyke A. T., & Dumitrescu, A. (2002). Attachment disturbances in young children. II: Indiscriminate behavior and institutional care. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 41, 983-989. doi:.
110. Zeanah, C. H., Smyke, A. T., Koga, S. F., Carlson, E., & the Bucharest Early Intervention Core Group. (2005). Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania. Child Development, 76, 1015-1028. doi:.
111. Zeanah, C. H., Smyke, A. T., & Settles, L. (2006). Children in orphanages. In K. McCartney & D. Phillips (Eds.), Blackwell handbook of early childhood development (pp. 224-254). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.