Biodegradable bone regeneration synthetic scaffolds: In tissue engineering

Current Stem Cell Research and Therapy

Volumn 7, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 134-142

  Hammouche, Salah ^a   Hammouche, Dalia ^b   McNicholas, Michael ^c  

^a WARRINGTON AND HALTON HOSPITALS NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^b QUEEN S MEDICAL CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SALFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bone regeneration; Osteoconductivity; Osteoinductivity; Scaffold; Tissue engineering

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM PHOSPHATE CERAMIC; CALCIUM SULFATE; CHITOSAN; POLYGLACTIN; POLYMER; TISSUE SCAFFOLD;

BIOCOMPATIBILITY; BIODEGRADATION; BONE DEVELOPMENT; BONE REGENERATION; BONE REMODELING; CANCELLOUS BONE; COMPOSITE MATERIAL; CORTICAL BONE; HUMAN; METAL IMPLANTATION; NANOTECHNOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; TISSUE ENGINEERING;

ANIMALS; BIOCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS; BONE REGENERATION; HUMANS; POLYMERS; REGENERATIVE MEDICINE; TISSUE ENGINEERING; TISSUE SCAFFOLDS;

EID: 84857737510     PISSN: 1574888X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/157488812799219018     Document Type: Review

References (140)

1. Camper Y. Bone grafts and bone substitutes. Orthopedic Network News 1995; 6.
2. Acarturk TO, Hollinger JO. Commercially available demineralized bone matrix compositions to regenerate calvarial critical-sized bone defects. Plast Reconstr Surg 2006; 118(4): 862-73.
3. Parikh SN. Bone graft substitutes: past, present, future. J Postgrad Med 2002; 48(2): 142-8.
4. Harakas NK. Demineralized bone-matrix-induced osteogenesis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1984; (188): 239-51.
5. Bostrom R, Mikos A. Tissue engineering of bone. In: Atala A, Mooney DJ, editors. Synthetic biodegradable polymer scaffolds. Boston: Birkha\0308user; 1997. p. xii,258p.
6. Schindeler A, McDonald MM, Bokko P, Little DG. Bone remodeling during fracture repair: The cellular picture. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2008; 19(5): 459-66.
7. Croteau S, Rauch F, Silvestri A, Hamdy RC. Bone morphogenetic proteins in orthopedics: from basic science to clinical practice. Orthopedics 1999; 22(7): 686-95; quiz 96-7.
8. Meyer U, Joos U, Wiesmann HP. Biological and biophysical principles in extracorporal bone tissue engineering. Part I. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004; 33(4): 325-32.
9. Putnam AJ, Mooney DJ. Tissue engineering using synthetic extracellular matrices. Nat Med 1996; 2(7): 824-6.
10. Carson JS, Bostrom MP. Synthetic bone scaffolds and fracture repair. Injury 2007; 38 Suppl 1: S33-7.
11. Karageorgiou V, Kaplan D. Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis. Biomaterials 2005; 26(27): 5474-91.
12. Coventry MB, Tapper EM. Pelvic Instability: A consequence of removing iliac bone for grafting. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1972; 54(1): 83-101.
13. Ahlmann E, Patzakis M, Roidis N, Shepherd L, Holtom P. Comparison of Anterior and Posterior Iliac Crest Bone Grafts in Terms of Harvest-Site Morbidity and Functional Outcomes. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2002; 84(5): 716-20.
14. Reid RL. Hernia through an Iliac Bone-Graft Donor Site: A CASE REPORT. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1968; 50(4): 757-60.
15. Cowley SP, Anderson LD. Hernias through donor sites for iliacbone grafts. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1983; 65(7): 1023-5.
16. Banwart JC, Asher MA, Hassanein RS. Iliac crest bone graft harvest donor site morbidity. A statistical evaluation. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1995; 20(9): 1055-60.
17. Damien CJ, Parsons JR. Bone graft and bone graft substitutes: a review of current technology and applications. J Appl Biomater 1991; 2(3): 187-208.
18. Friedlaender GE. Immune responses to osteochondral allografts. Current knowledge and future directions. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1983; (174): 58-68.
19. Asselmeier MA, Caspari RB, Bottenfield S. A review of allograft processing and sterilization techniques and their role in transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Sports Med 1993; 21(2): 170-5.
20. Patrick CW, Mikos AG, McIntire LV. Frontiers in tissue engineering. Oxford: Pergamon; 1998.
21. Yang S, Leong KF, Du Z, Chua CK. The design of scaffolds for use in tissue engineering. Part I. Traditional factors. Tissue Eng 2001; 7(6): 679-89.
22. Lane JM, Tomin E, Bostrom MP. Biosynthetic bone grafting. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1999; (367 Suppl): S107-17.
23. Coombes AGA, Meikle MC. Resorbable synthetic polymers s replacements for bone graft. Clin Mater 1994; 17(1): 35-67.
24. Lanza RP, Langer RS, Vacanti J. Principles of tissue engineering. 3rd ed. London: Academic; 2007.
25. Roy TD, Simon JL, Ricci JL, Rekow ED, Thompson VP, Parsons JR. Performance of degradable composite bone repair products made via three-dimensional fabrication techniques. J Biomed Mater Res Part A. 2003; 66A(2): 283-91.
26. Takezawa T. A strategy for the development of tissue engineering scaffolds that regulate cell behavior. Biomaterials 2003; 24(13): 2267-75.
27. Yannas IV, Lee E, Orgill DP, Skrabut EM, Murphy GF. Synthesis and characterization of a model extracellular matrix that induces partial regeneration of adult mammalian skin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1989; 86(3): 933-7.
28. Hench LL, Polak JM. Third-generation biomedical materials. Science 2002; 295(5557): 1014-7.
29. Bucholz RW. Nonallograft Osteoconductive Bone Graft Substitutes. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2002; 395: 44-52.
30. Hutmacher DW. Scaffolds in tissue engineering bone and cartilage. Biomaterials 2000; 21(24): 2529-43.
31. Burg KJ, Porter S, Kellam JF. Biomaterial developments for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2000; 21(23): 2347-59.
32. Urist MR, Silverman BF, Buring K, Dubuc FL, Rosenberg JM. The bone induction principle. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1967; 53: 243-83.
33. Urist MR. Bone histogenesis and morphogenesis in implants of demineralized enamel and dentin. J Oral Surg 1971; 29(2): 88-102.
34. Urist MR, Strates BS. Bone morphogenetic protein. J Dent Res 1971; 50(6): 1392-406.
35. Dawson JI, Oreffo RO. Bridging the regeneration gap: stem cells, biomaterials and clinical translation in bone tissue engineering. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 473(2): 124-31.
36. Jones JR, Lee PD, Hench LL. Hierarchical porous materials for tissue engineering. Philos Transact A Math Phys Eng Sci 2006; 364(1838): 263-81.
37. Blitterswijk CAv. Tissue engineering. London: Academic; 2007.
38. Park JB, Bronzino JD. Biomaterials: principles and applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2003.
39. Weiner S, Wagner HD. The material bone: Structure-mechanical function relations. Ann Rev Mater Sci 1998; 28(1): 271-98.
40. Rho J-Y, Kuhn-Spearing L, Zioupos P. Mechanical properties and the hierarchical structure of bone. Med Eng Phys 1998; 20(2): 92-102.
41. Fratzl P, Weinkamer R. Nature's hierarchical materials. Progress in Materials Science 2007; 52(8): 1263-334.
42. Muller R. Hierarchical microimaging of bone structure and function. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2009; 5(7): 373-81.
43. Wiesmann HP, Joos U, Meyer U. Biological and biophysical principles in extracorporal bone tissue engineering. Part II. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2004; 33(6): 523-30.
44. Barrère F, Mahmood TA, de Groot K, van Blitterswijk CA. Advanced biomaterials for skeletal tissue regeneration: Instructive and smart functions. Mater Sci Eng: R: Reports 2008; 59(1-6): 38-71.
45. Kwan MD, Wan DC, Longaker MT, Robert L, Robert L, Joseph V. Skeletal-tissue engineering. Principles of Tissue Engineering (Third Edition). Burlington: Academic Press; 2007. p. 935-44.
46. Babis GC, Soucacos PN. Bone scaffolds: The role of mechanical stability and instrumentation. Injury 2005; 36(4, Supplement 1): S38-S44.
47. Wagoner Johnson AJ, Herschler BA. A review of the mechanical behavior of CaP and CaP/polymer composites for applications in bone replacement and repair. Acta Biomater 2011; 7(1): 16-30.
48. Story BJ, Wagner WR, Gaisser DM, Cook SD, Rust-Dawicki AM. In vivo performance of a modified CSTi dental implant coating. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1998; 13(6): 749-57.
49. Hulbert SF, Young FA, Mathews RS, Klawitter JJ, Talbert CD, Stelling FH. Potential of ceramic materials as permanently implantable skeletal prostheses. J Biomed Mater Res 1970; 4(3): 433-56.
50. Gauthier O, Bouler JM, Aguado E, Pilet P, Daculsi G. Macroporous biphasic calcium phosphate ceramics: influence of macropore diameter and macroporosity percentage on bone ingrowth. Biomaterials 1998; 19(1-3): 133-9.
51. Lan Levengood SK, Polak SJ, Wheeler MB, et al. Multiscale osteointegration as a new paradigm for the design of calcium phosphate scaffolds for bone regeneration. Biomaterials 2010; 31(13): 3552-63.
52. Dobelin N, Luginbuhl R, Bohner M. Synthetic calcium phosphate ceramics for treatment of bone fractures. Chimia (Aarau) 2010; 64(10): 723-9.
53. Yamamuro T. Bone Bonding Behavior and Clinical use of A-W Glass-Ceramic. In: Urist MR, O'Connor BT, Burwell RG, editors. Bone grafts, derivatives and substitutes. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann; 1994. p. 245-59.
54. Flatley TJ, Lynch KL, Benson M. Tissue response to implants of calcium phosphate ceramic in the rabbit spine. 1983.
55. Bohner M. Calcium orthophosphates in medicine: from ceramics to calcium phosphate cements. Injury 2000; 31 Suppl 4: 37-47.
56. Moseley JP, Miller LC, Carroll M, Bible S, Richelsoph KC, editors. Dissolution behaviour of two types of calcium sulphate bone graft substitute materials. Transactions - 7th World Biomaterials Congress; 2004; Sydney.
57. Dreesmann H. Über Knochenplombierung. Beitr Klin Chir 9 1892: 804-10.
58. Coetzee AS. Regeneration of bone in the presence of calcium sulfate. Arch Otolaryngol 1980; 106(7): 405-9.
59. al Ruhaimi KA. Effect of calcium sulphate on the rate of osteogenesis in distracted bone. Int J Oral Maxillofac Surg 2001; 30(3): 228-33.
60. Chen H, Tao S, Zhang BX, Ma JM. New viewpoints and advanced comprehension of calcium sulphate as the substitute for bone filling and repair. Chinese Journal of Clinical Rehabilitation 2005; 9(18): 180-1.
61. Yamazaki Y, Oida S, Akimoto Y, Shioda S. Response of the mouse femoral muscle to an implant of a composite of bone morphogenetic protein and plaster of Paris. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1988; (234): 240-9.
62. Cui X, Zhang B-x, Zhao D-w. [Restoration of segmental bone defect by calcium sulfate pellet: experiment with rabbit]. Zhonghua Yi Xue Za Zhi. [English Abstract;]. 2009; 89(11): 777-81.
63. Bell WH. Resorption Characteristics of Bone and Bone Substitutes. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1964; 17: 650-7.
64. Moed BR, Willson Carr SE, Craig JG, Watson JT. Calcium Sulfate Used as Bone Graft Substitute in Acetabular Fracture Fixation. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2003; 410: 303-9.
65. Bibbo C, Patel DV. The effect of demineralized bone matrixcalcium sulfate with vancomycin on calcaneal fracture healing and infection rates: A prospective study. Foot Ankle Int. [Article] 2006; 27(7): 487-93.
66. Helgeson MD, Potter BK, Tucker CJ, Frisch HM, Shawen SB. Antibiotic-impregnated calcium sulfate use in combat-related open fractures. Orthopedics [Clinical Trial;] 2009; 32(5): 323.
67. Payne JM, Cobb CM, Rapley JW, Killoy WJ, Spencer P. Migration of human gingival fibroblasts over guided tissue regeneration barrier materials. J Periodontol 1996; 67(3): 236-44.
68. apagelopoulos PJ, Mavrogenis AF, Tsiodras S, Vlastou C, Giamarellou H, Soucacos PN. Calcium sulphate delivery system with tobramycin for the treatment of chronic calcaneal osteomyelitis. J Int Med Res 2006; 34(6): 704-12.
69. Frame JW. Porous calcium sulphate dihydrate as a biodegradable implant in bone. J Dent 1975; 3(4): 177-87.
70. Peltier LF. The use of plaster of Paris to fill large defects in bone: a preliminary report. 1959. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2001; (382): 3-5.
71. Peltier LF. The use of plaster of paris to fill large defects in bone. Am J Surg 1959; 97(3): 311-5.
72. Aimetti M, Romano F, Griga FB, Godio L. Clinical and Histologic Healing of Human Extraction Sockets Filled with Calcium Sulfate. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 2009; 24(5): 901-9.
73. Peltier LF. The use of plaster of Paris to fill defects in bone. Clin orthop 1961; 21: 1-31.
74. Orsini M, Orsini G, Benlloch D, Aranda JJ, Sanz M. Long-term clinical results on the use of bone-replacement grafts in the treatment of intrabony periodontal defects. Comparison of the use of autogenous bone graft plus calcium sulfate to autogenous bone graft covered with a bioabsorbable membrane. J Periodont 2008; 79(9): 1630-7.
75. Lee EJ, Jeon SH, Chae JH, et al. Effects of CMC-Based Calcium Sulfate Hemihydrate Containing Allogenic Demineralized Bone Matrix on Rat Skull Defect Healing. Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2009; 6(1-3): 287-93.
76. Erdemli O, Captug O, Bilgili H, Orhan D, Tezcaner A, Keskin D. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of the effects of demineralized bone matrix or calcium sulfate addition to polycaprolactone-bioglass composites. J Mater Sci-Mater Med 2010; 21(1): 295-308.
77. Kelly CM, Wilkins RM, Gitelis S, Hartjen C, Watson JT, Kim PT. The Use of a Surgical Grade Calcium Sulfate as a Bone Graft Substitute: Results of a Multicenter Trial. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2001; 382: 42-50.
78. Shaffer CD, App GR. The use of plaster of paris in treating infrabony periodontal defects in humans. J Periodontol 1971; 42(11): 685-90.
79. Robinson D, Alk D, Sandbank J, Farber R, Halperin N. Inflammatory reactions associated with a calcium sulfate bone substitute. Annals of transplantation: quarterly of the Polish Transplantation Society 1999; 4(3-4): 91-7.
80. Somrani S, Rey C, Jemal M. Thermal evolution of amorphous tricalcium phosphate. J Mater Chem 2003; 13(4): 888-92.
81. LeGeros RZ. Properties of Osteoconductive Biomaterials: Calcium Phosphates. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2002; 395: 81-98.
82. Schek RM, Wilke EN, Hollister SJ, Krebsbach PH. Combined use of designed scaffolds and adenoviral gene therapy for skeletal tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2006; 27(7): 1160-6.
83. Hing KA. Bioceramic Bone Graft Substitutes: Influence of Porosity and Chemistry. Int J Appl Ceramic Technol 2005; 2(3): 184-99.
84. Ruhé PQ, Kroese-Deutman HC, Wolke JGC, Spauwen PHM, Jansen JA. Bone inductive properties of rhBMP-2 loaded porous calcium phosphate cement implants in cranial defects in rabbits. Biomaterials 2004; 25(11): 2123-32.
85. Tay BKB, Patel VV, Bradford DS. CALCIUM SULFATE- AND CALCIUM PHOSPHATE-BASED BONE SUBSTITUTES: Mimicry of the Mineral Phase of Bone. Orthop Clin North Amer 1999; 30(4): 615-23.
86. den Hollander W, Patka P, Klein CPAT, Heidendal GAK. Macroporous calcium phosphate ceramics for bone substitution: a tracer study on biodegradation with 45Ca tracer. Biomaterials 1991; 12(6): 569-73.
87. Kuboki Y, Takita H, Kobayashi D, et al. BMP-Induced osteogenesis on the surface of hydroxyapatite with geometrically feasible and nonfeasible structures: Topology of osteogenesis. Journal of Biomedical Materials Res 1998; 39(2): 190-9.
88. Osborn JF, Newesely H. The material science of calcium phosphate ceramics. Biomaterials 1980; 1(2): 108-11.
89. LeGeros RZ. Biodegradation and bioresorption of calcium phosphate ceramics. Clin Mater 1993; 14(1): 65-88.
90. Hench LL, Splinter RJ, Allen WC, Greenlee TK. Bonding mechanisms at the interface of ceramic prosthetic materials. J Biomed Mater Res 1972; 5(6): 117-41.
91. Hench LL. Bioceramics. Journal of the American Ceramic Society 1998; 81(7): 1705-27.
92. Miguel BS, Kriauciunas R, Tosatti S, et al. Enhanced osteoblastic activity and bone regeneration using surface-modified porous bioactive glass scaffolds. Wiley Subscription Services, Inc., A Wiley Company; 2010. p. 1023-33.
93. Ito G, Matsuda T, Inoue N, Kamegai T. A histological comparison of the tissue interface of bioglass and silica glass. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 1987. p. 485-97.
94. Kokubo T, Takadama H. How useful is SBF in predicting in vivo bone bioactivity? Biomaterials 2006; 27(15): 2907-15.
95. Hench LL, Wilson J. Surface-Active Biomaterials. Science 1984; 226(4675): 630-6.
96. Moimas L, Biasotto M, Lenarda RD, Olivo A, Schmid C. Rabbit pilot study on the resorbability of three-dimensional bioactive glass fibre scaffolds. Acta Biomater 2006; 2(2): 191-9.
97. Brink M, Turunen T, Happonen R-P, Yli-Urpo A. Compositional dependence of bioactivity of glasses in the system Na2O-K2OMgO-CaO-B2O3-P2O5-SiO2. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 1997. p. 114-21.
98. Xynos ID, Hukkanen MVJ, Batten JJ, Buttery LD, Hench LL, Polak JM. Bioglass ®45S5 Stimulates Osteoblast Turnover and Enhances Bone Formation; Implications and Applications for Bone Tissue Engineering. Calcif Tissue Int. 2000; 67(4): 321-9.
99. Xynos ID, Edgar AJ, Buttery LD, Hench LL, Polak JM. Geneexpression profiling of human osteoblasts following treatment with the ionic products of Bioglass 45S5 dissolution. J Biomed Mater Res 2001; 55(2): 151-7.
100. Schepers EJG, Ducheyne P. Bioactive glass particles of narrow size range for the treatment of oral bone defects: a 1-24 month experiment with several materials and particle sizes and size ranges. J Oral Rehabil 1997; 24(3): 171-81.
101. El-Ghannam AR. Advanced bioceramic composite for bone tissue engineering: Design principles and structure-bioactivity relationship. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 2004; 69A(3): 490-501.
102. Brink M. The influence of alkali and alkaline earths on the working range for bioactive glasses. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 1997. p. 109-17.
103. Ducheyne P. Bioglass coatings and bioglass composites as implant materials. J Biomed Mater Res 1985; 19(3): 273-91.
104. Pirhonen E, Moimas L, Brink M. Mechanical properties of bioactive glass 9-93 fibres. Acta Biomaterialia 2006; 2(1): 103-7.
105. Rezwan K, Chen QZ, Blaker JJ, Boccaccini AR. Biodegradable and bioactive porous polymer/inorganic composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2006; 27(18): 3413-31.
106. Park JB, Kim YK. Metallic biomaterials. In: Park JB, Bronzino JD, editors. Biomaterials: principles and applications. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2003.
107. Rubin JP, Yaremchuk MJ. Complications and Toxicities of Implantable Biomaterials Used in Facial Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery: A Comprehensive Review of the Literature. Plast Reconstr Surg 1997; 100(5): 1336-53.
108. Okazaki Y, Rao S, Tateishi T, Ito Y. Cytocompatibility of various metal and development of new titanium alloys for medical implants. Mater Sci Eng A 1998; 243(1-2): 250-6.
109. Dabrowski B, Swieszkowski W, Godlinski D, Kurzydlowski KJ. Highly porous titanium scaffolds for orthopaedic applications. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater 2010; 95B(1): 53-61.
110. Long M, Rack HJ. Titanium alloys in total joint replacement-a materials science perspective. Biomaterials 1998; 19(18): 1621-39.
111. Singh R, Lee PD, Jones JR, et al. Hierarchically structured titanium foams for tissue scaffold applications. Acta Biomaterialia 2010; 6(12): 4596-604.
112. Wei J, Jia J, Wu F, et al. Hierarchically microporous/macroporous scaffold of magnesium-calcium phosphate for bone tissue regeneration. Biomaterials 2010; 31(6): 1260-9.
113. Witte F, Kaese V, Haferkamp H, et al. In vivo corrosion of four magnesium alloys and the associated bone response. Biomaterials 2005; 26(17): 3557-63.
114. McBRIDE ED. ABSORBABLE METAL IN BONE SURGERY. Journal Amer Med Assoc 1938; 111(27): 2464-7.
115. San Miguel B, Kriauciunas R, Tosatti S, et al. Enhanced osteoblastic activity and bone regeneration using surface-modified porous bioactive glass scaffolds. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 94(4): 1023-33.
116. Venkatesan J, Kim S-K. Chitosan Composites for Bone Tissue Engineeringâ€"An Overview. Marine Drugs 2010; 8(8): 2252-66.
117. Wang M. Developing bioactive composite materials for tissue replacement. Biomaterials 2003; 24(13): 2133-51.
118. Je JY, Kim SK. Water-soluble chitosan derivatives as a BACE1 inhibitor. Bioorg Med Chem 2005; 13(23): 6551-5.
119. Peter M, Binulal NS, Nair SV, Selvamurugan N, Tamura H, Jayakumar R. Novel biodegradable chitosan-gelatin/nano-bioactive glass ceramic composite scaffolds for alveolar bone tissue engineering. Chem Eng J 2010; 158(2): 353-61.
120. Di Martino A, Sittinger M, Risbud MV. Chitosan: a versatile biopolymer for orthopaedic tissue-engineering. Biomaterials 2005; 26(30): 5983-90.
121. Venkatesan J, Qian ZJ, Ryu B, Kumar NA, Kim SK. Preparation and characterization of carbon nanotube-grafted-chitosan - Natural hydroxyapatite composite for bone tissue engineering. Carbohydr Polym 2010; 83(2): 569-77.
122. Li Z, Yubao L, Aiping Y, Xuelin P, Xuejiang W, Xiang Z. Preparation and in vitro investigation of chitosan/nano-hydroxyapatite composite used as bone substitute materials. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2005; 16(3): 213-9.
123. Thein-Han WW, Misra RD. Biomimetic chitosannanohydroxyapatite composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2009; 5(4): 1182-97.
124. Zhang Y, Venugopal JR, El-Turki A, Ramakrishna S, Su B, Lim CT. Electrospun biomimetic nanocomposite nanofibers of hydroxyapatite/chitosan for bone tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2008; 29(32): 4314-22.
125. Manjubala I, Scheler S, Bossert J, Jandt KD. Mineralisation of chitosan scaffolds with nano-apatite formation by double diffusion technique. Acta Biomater 2006; 2(1): 75-84.
126. Aronow MA, Gerstenfeld LC, Owen TA, Tassinari MS, Stein GS, Lian JB. Factors that promote progressive development of the osteoblast phenotype in cultured fetal rat calvaria cells. J Cell Physiol 1990; 43(2): 213-21.
127. Niu X, Fan Y, Li P, Feng Q. Biodegradable and bioactive nHAC/CMs/PLLA scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Bone 2010;47(Supplement 3):S438-S.
128. Liu B, Chen YL, Huang Y, Hwang KC. Fracture toughness of carbon nanotube-reinforced metal- and ceramic-matrix composites. J Nanomater 2011.
129. Usui Y, Aoki K, Narita N, et al. Carbon nanotubes with high bonetissue compatibility and bone-formation acceleration effects. Small 2008; 4(2): 240-6.
130. Wang SF, Shen L, Zhang WD, Tong YJ. Preparation and mechanical properties of chitosan/carbon nanotubes composites. Biomacromolecules 2005; 6(6): 3067-72.
131. Zhang X, Meng L, Lu Q. Cell behaviors on polysaccharidewrapped single-wall carbon nanotubes: a quantitative study of the surface properties of biomimetic nanofibrous scaffolds. ACS Nano 2009; 3(10): 3200-6.
132. Miranda SCCC, Silva GAB, Hell RCR, Martins MD, Alves JB, Goes AM. Three-dimensional culture of rat BMMSCs in a porous chitosan-gelatin scaffold: A promising association for bone tissue engineering in oral reconstruction. Arch Oral Biol 2010; 56(1): 1-15.
133. Boccaccini AR, Erol M, Stark WJ, Mohn D, Hong Z, Mano JF. Polymer/bioactive glass nanocomposites for biomedical applications: A review. Comp Sci Technol 2010; 70(13): 1764-76.
134. Krishnamoorti R, Vaia RA, American Chemical Society. Meeting. Polymer nanocomposites: synthesis, characterization, and modeling. Washington, D.C. Cambridge: American Chemical Society; Royal Society of Chemistry; 2001.
135. Vollenweider M, Brunner TJ, Knecht S, et al. Remineralization of human dentin using ultrafine bioactive glass particles. Acta Biomater 2007; 3(6): 936-43.
136. Yun H-s, Kim S-e, Park EK. Bioactive glass-poly ([epsilon]-caprolactone) composite scaffolds with 3 dimensionally hierarchical pore networks. Materials Science and Engineering: C 2010; 31(2): 198-205.
137. Francis L, Meng D, Knowles JC, Roy I, Boccaccini AR. Multifunctional P(3HB) microsphere/45S5 Bioglass®-based composite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. Acta Biomater 2010; 6(7): 2773-86.
138. Valappil SP, Misra SK, Boccaccini AR, Keshavarz T, Bucke C, Roy I. Large-scale production and efficient recovery of PHB with desirable material properties, from the newly characterised Bacillus cereus SPV. J Biotechnol 2007; 132(3): 251-8.
139. Wang YJ, Shi XT, Ren L, Yao YC, Zhang F, Wang DA. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)/titania Composite Microsphere-Sintered Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications. J Biomed Mater Res Part B 2010; 93B(1): 84-92.
140. Holmes TC. Novel peptide-based biomaterial scaffolds for tissue engineering. Trends Biotechnol 2002; 20(1): 16-21.