The ACE Gene and Performance

Genetic and Molecular Aspects of Sport Performance

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 195-203

  Skipworth, James R A ^a   Puthucheary, Zudin A ^a   Rawal, Jai ^a   Montgomery, Hugh E ^a  

^a ROYAL FREE AND UNIVERSITY COLLEGE MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

"delta efficiency" (DE); ACE and Elite Performance; ACE and V O2max; ACE Genotype and the Response to Hypoxia; Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE); Insertion deletion (I D); Renin angiotensin system (RAS); The ACE Gene and Performance Human Endocrine and Paracrine Renin Angiotensin Systems; The ACE I D Polymorphism and Human Muscle

Indexed keywords

EID: 84857648609     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781444327335.ch17     Document Type: Chapter

References (106)

1. Abraham, M.R., Olson, L.J., Joyner, M.J., Turner, S.T., Beck, K.C. & Johnson, B.D. (2002). Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype modulates pulmonary function and exercise capacity in treated patients with congestive stable heart failure. Circulation 106(14), 1794-1799.
2. Ailhaud, G. (1999). Cell surface receptors, nuclear receptors and ligands that regulate adipose tissue development. Clinica Chimica Acta 286(1-2), 181-190.
3. Alhenc-Gelas, F., Richard, J., Courbon, D., Warnet, J.M. & Corvol, P. (1991). Distribution of plasma angiotensin I-converting enzyme levels in healthy men: Relationship to environmental and hormonal parameters. Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine 117(1), 33-39.
4. Alvarez, R., Terrados, N., Ortolano, R., et al. (2000). Genetic variation in the renin-angiotensin system and athletic performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology 82(1-2), 117-120.
5. Beinlich, C.J., White, G.J., Baker, K.M. & Morgan, H.E. (1991). Angiotensin II and left ventricular growth in newborn pig heart. Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology 23(9), 1031-1038.
6. Berk, B.C., Vekshtein, V., Gordon, H.M. & Tsuda, T. (1989). Angiotensin IIstimulated protein synthesis in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 13(4), 305-314.
7. Bischoff, H.A., Stahelin, H.B., Dick, W., et al. (2003). Effects of vitamin D and calcium supplementation on falls: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Bone Mineral Research 18(2), 343-351.
8. Bonnardeaux, A., Davies, E., Jeunemaitre, X., et al. (1994). Angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene polymorphisms in human essential hypertension. Hypertension 24(1), 63-69.
9. Bouchard, C., Leon, A.S., Rao, D.C., Skinner, J.S., Wilmore, J.H. & Gagnon, J. (1995). The HERITAGE family study. Aims, design, and measurement protocol. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 27(5), 721-729.
10. Bouchard, C., Rankinen, T., Chagnon, Y.C., et al. (2000). Genomic scan for maximal oxygen uptake and its response to training in the HERITAGE Family Study. Journal of Applied Physiology 88(2), 551-559.
11. Braun, A., Kammerer, S., Maier, E., Bohme, E. & Roscher, A.A. (1996). Polymorphisms in the gene for the human B2-bradykinin receptor. New tools in assessing a genetic risk for bradykinin-associated diseases. Immunopharmacology 33(1-3), 32-35.
12. Brink, M., Wellen, J. & Delafontaine, P. (1996). Angiotensin II causes weight loss and decreases circulating insulin-like growth factor I in rats through a pressorindependent mechanism. Journal of Clinical Investigation 97(11), 2509-2516.
13. Brink, M., Price, S.R., Chrast, J., et al. (2001). Angiotensin II induces skeletal muscle wasting through enhanced protein degradation and down-regulates autocrine insulin-like growth factor I. Endocrinology 142(4), 1489-1496.
14. Brown, N.J., Blais, C., Jr., Gandhi, S.K. & Adam, A. (1998). ACE insertion/deletion genotype affects bradykinin metabolism. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 32(3), 373-377.
15. Brull, D., Dhamrait, S., Myerson, S., et al. (2001). Bradykinin B2BKR receptor polymorphism and left-ventricular growth response. Lancet 358(9288), 1155-1156.
16. Buhl, R., Ersbøll, A.K., Eriksen, L. & Koch, J. (2005). Changes over time in echocardiographic measurements in young Standardbred racehorses undergoing training and racing and association with racing performance. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 226(11), 1881-1887.
17. Carter, C.S., Onder, G., Kritchevsky, S.B. & Pahor, M. (2005). Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition intervention in elderly persons: effects on body composition and physical performance. Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences 60(11), 1437-1446.
18. Collins, M., Xenophontos, S.L., Cariolou, M.A., et al. (2004). The ACE gene and endurance performance during the South African Ironman Triathlons. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 36(8), 1314-1320.
19. Costerousse, O., Allegrini, J., Lopez, M. & Alhenc-Gelas, F. (1993). Angiotensin I-converting enzyme in human circulating mononuclear cells: Genetic polymorphism of expression in T-lymphocytes. Biochemical Journal 290, 33-40.
20. Cruickshank, J.M., Lewis, J., Moore, V. & Dodd, C. (1992). Reversibility of left ventricular hypertrophy by differing types of antihypertensive therapy. Journal of Human Hypertension 6(2), 85-90.
21. Danser, A.H., Schalekamp, M.A., Bax, W.A., et al. (1995). Angiotensin converting enzyme in the human heart. Effect of the deletion/insertion polymorphism. Circulation 92(6), 1387-1388.
22. Danser, A.H., Saris, J.J., Schuijt, M.P. & van Kats, J.P. (1999). Is there a local renin-angiotensin system in the heart? Cardiovascular Research 44(2), 252-265.
23. 2max or mechanical efficiency in women. European Journal of Applied Physiology 99(1), 11-18.
24. Dellgren, G., Eriksson, M.J., Blange, I., Brodin, L.A., Radegran, K. & Sylven, C. (1999). Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism influences degree of left ventricular hypertrophy and its regression in patients undergoing operation for aortic stenosis. American Journal of Cardiology 84(8), 909-913.
25. Di Bari, M., van de Poll-Franse, L.V., Onder, G., et al. (2004). Antihypertensive medications and differences in muscle mass in older persons: The Health, Aging and Body Composition Study. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 52(6), 961-966.
26. Di Mauro, M., Izzicupo, P., Santarelli, F., et al. (2010). ACE and AGTR1 polymorphisms and left ventricular hypertrophy in endurance athletes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 42(5), 915-921.
27. Dzau, V.J. (1989). Multiple pathways of angiotensin production in the blood vessel wall: Evidence, possibilities and hypotheses. Journal of Hypertension 7(12), 933-936.
28. Estacio, R.O., Jeffers, B.W., Havranek, E.P., Krick, D., Raynolds, M. & Schrier, R.W. (1999). Deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin converting enzyme gene is associated with an increase in left ventricular mass in men with type 2 diabetes mellitus. American Journal of Hypertension 12(6), 637-642.
29. Fatini, C., Guazzelli, R., Manetti, P., et al. (2000). RAS genes influence exerciseinduced left ventricular hypertrophy: An elite athletes study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise 32(11), 1868-1872.
30. Folland, J., Leach, B., Little, T., et al. (2000). Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype affects the response of human skeletal muscle to functional overload. Experimental Physiology 85(5), 575-579.
31. Gayagay, G., Yu, B., Hambly, B., et al. (1998). Elite endurance athletes and the ACE I allele-the role of genes in athletic performance. Human Genetics 103(1), 48-50.
32. Gordon, S.E., Davis, B.S., Carlson, C.J. & Booth, F.W. (2001). ANG II is required for optimal overload-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy. American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 280(1), E150-E159.
33. 2max is associated with ACE genotype in postmenopausal women. Journal of Applied Physiology 85(5), 1842-1846.
34. Hernandez, D., de la Rosa, A., Barragan, A., et al. (2003). The ACE/DD genotype is associated with the extent of exercise-induced left ventricular growth in endurance athletes. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 42(3), 527-532.
35. Hernandez-Presa, M., Bustos, C., Ortego, M., et al. (1997). Angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibition prevents arterial nuclear factor-kappa B activation, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression, and macrophage infiltration in a rabbit model of early accelerated atherosclerosis. Circulation 95(6), 1532-1541.
36. Hopkinson, N.S., Nickol, A.H., Payne, J., et al. (2004). Angiotensin converting enzyme genotype and strength in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 170(4), 395-399.
37. Hopkinson, N.S., Eleftheriou, K.I., Payne, J., et al. (2006). +9/+9 Homozygosity of the bradykinin receptor gene polymorphism is associated with reduced fat-free mass in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 83(4), 912-917.
38. Houle, S., Landry, M., Audet, R., Bouthillier, J., Bachvarov, D.R. & Marceau, F. (2000). Effect of allelic polymorphism of the B (1) and B (2) receptor genes on the contractile responses of the human umbilical vein to kinins. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 294(1), 45-51.
39. Inoue, I., Nakajima, T., Williams, C.S., et al. (1997). A nucleotide substitution in the promoter of human angiotensinogen is associated with essential hypertension and affects basal transcription in vitro. Journal of Clinical Investigation 99(7), 1786-1797.
40. Ishigami, T., Umemura, S., Tamura, K., et al. (1997). Essential hypertension and 5' upstream core promoter region of human angiotensinogen gene. Hypertension 30(6), 1325-1330.
41. Jeunemaitre, X., Lifton, R.P., Hunt, S.C., Williams, R.R. & Lalouel, J.M. (1992a). Absence of linkage between the angiotensin converting enzyme locus and human essential hypertension. Nature Genetics 1(1), 72-75.
42. Jeunemaitre, X., Rigat, B., Charru, A., Houot, A.M., Soubrier, F. & Corvol, P. (1992b). Sib pair linkage analysis of renin gene haplotypes in human essential hypertension. Human Genetics 88(3), 301-306.
43. Jeunemaitre, X., Soubrier, F., Kotelevtsev, Y.V., et al. (1992c). Molecular basis of human hypertension: role of angiotensinogen. Cell 71(1), 169-180.
44. Karjalainen, J., Kujala, U.M., Stolt, A., et al. (1999). Angiotensinogen gene M235T polymorphism predicts left ventricular hypertrophy in endurance athletes. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 34(2), 494-499.
45. Kasikcioglu, E., Kayserilioglu, A., Ciloglu, F., et al. (2004). Angiotensinconverting enzyme gene polymorphism, left ventricular remodeling, and exercise capacity in strength-trained athletes. Heart Vessels 19(6), 287-293.
46. Kem, D.C. & Brown, R.D. (1990). Renin- from beginning to end. New England Journal of Medicine 323(16), 1136-1137.
47. Koren, M.J., Devereux, R.B., Casale, P.N., Savage, D.D. & Laragh, J.H. (1991). Relation of left ventricular mass and geometry to morbidity and mortality in uncomplicated essential hypertension. Annals of Internal Medicine 114(5), 345-352.
48. Kuznetsova, T., Staessen, J.A., Wang, J.G., et al. (2000). Antihypertensive treatment modulates the association between the D/I ACE gene polymorphism and left ventricular hypertrophy: A metaanalysis. Journal of Human Hypertension 14(7), 447-454.
49. Levy, D., Garrison, R.J., Savage, D.D., Kannel, W.B. & Castelli, W.P. (1990). Prognostic implications of echocardiographically determined left ventricular mass in the Framingham Heart Study. New England Journal of Medicine 322(22), 1561-1566.
50. Lievre, M., Gueret, P., Gayet, C., et al. (1995). Ramipril-induced regression of left ventricular hypertrophy in treated hypertensive individuals. HYCAR Study Group. Hypertension 25(1), 92-97.
51. Lindpaintner, K., Lee, M., Larson, M.G., et al. (1996). Absence of association or genetic linkage between the angiotensin-converting-enzyme gene and left ventricular mass. New England Journal of Medicine 334(16), 1023-1028.
52. Linz, W. & Scholkens, B.A. (1992a). A specific B2-bradykinin receptor antagonist HOE 140 abolishes the antihypertrophic effect of ramipril. British Journal of Pharmacology 105(4), 771-772.
53. Linz, W. & Scholkens, B.A. (1992b). Role of bradykinin in the cardiac effects of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology 20(Suppl. 9), S83-S90.
54. Linz, W., Wiemer, G. & Scholkens, B.A. (1996). Role of kinins in the pathophysiology of myocardial ischemia. In vitro and in vivo studies. Diabetes 45(Suppl. 1), S51-S58.
55. Liu, Y., Leri, A., Li, B., et al. (1998). Angiotensin II stimulation in vitro induces hypertrophy of normal and postinfarcted ventricular myocytes. Circulation Research 82(11), 1145-1159.
56. Lung, C.C., Chan, E.K. & Zuraw, B.L. (1997). Analysis of an exon 1 polymorphism of the B2 bradykinin receptor gene and its transcript in normal subjects and patients with C1 inhibitor deficiency. Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology 99(1 Pt 1), 134-146.
57. Mansego, M.L., Redon, J., Marin, R., et al. (2008). Renin polymorphisms and haplotypes are associated with blood pressure levels and hypertension risk in postmenopausal women. Journal of Hypertension 26(2), 230-237.
58. Martin, M.M. & Elton, T.S. (1995). The sequence and genomic organization of the human type 2 angiotensin II receptor. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 209(2), 554-562.
59. Miller, J.A., Thai, K. & Scholey, J.W. (1999). Angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene polymorphism predicts response to losartan and angiotensin II. Kidney International 56(6), 2173-2180.
60. Montgomery, H. & Dhamrait, S. (2002). ACE genotype and performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 92(4), 1774-1775.
61. Montgomery, H.E., Clarkson, P., Dollery, C.M., et al. (1997). Association of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene I/D polymorphism with change in left ventricular mass in response to physical training. Circulation 96(3), 741-747.
62. Montgomery, H.E., Marshall, R., Hemingway, H., et al. (1998). Human gene for physical performance. Nature 393(6682), 221-222.
63. Montgomery, H., Clarkson, P., Barnard, M., et al. (1999). Angiotensin-convertingenzyme gene insertion/deletion polymorphism and response to physical training. Lancet 353(9152), 541-545.
64. Moran, C.N., Vassilopoulos, C., Tsiokanos, A., et al. (2006). The associations of ACE polymorphisms with physical, physiological and skill parameters in adolescents. European Journal of Human Genetics 14(3), 332-339.
65. Murphey, L.J., Gainer, J.V., Vaughan, D.E. & Brown, N.J. (2000). Angiotensinconverting enzyme insertion/deletion polymorphism modulates the human in vivo metabolism of bradykinin. Circulation 102(8), 829-832.
66. Myerson, S., Hemingway, H., Budget, R., Martin, J., Humphries, S. & Montgomery, H. (1999). Human angiotensin I-converting enzyme gene and endurance performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 87(4), 1313-1316.
67. Myerson, S.G., Montgomery, H.E., Whittingham, M., et al. (2001). Left ventricular hypertrophy with exercise and ACE gene insertion/deletion polymorphism: A randomized controlled trial with losartan. Circulation 103(2), 2226-2230.
68. Nazarov, I.B., Woods, D.R., Montgomery, H.E., et al. (2001). The angiotensin converting enzyme I/D polymorphism in Russian athletes. European Journal of Human Genetics 9(10), 797-801.
69. Paillard, F., Chansel, D., Brand, E., et al. (1999). Genotype-phenotype relationships for the renin-angiotensinaldosterone system in a normal population. Hypertension 34(3), 423-429.
70. Patel, S., Woods, D.R., Macleod, N.J., et al. (2003). Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype and the ventilatory response to exertional hypoxia. European Respiratory Journal 22(5), 755-760.
71. Paul, M., Poyan Mehr, A. & Kreutz, R. (2006). Physiology of local reninangiotensin systems. Physiological Reviews 86(3), 747-803.
72. Pedersen-Bjergaard, U., Agerholm- Larsen, B., Pramming, S., Hougaard, P. & Thorsteinsson, B. (2001). Activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme and risk of severe hypoglycaemia in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Lancet 357(9264), 1248-1253.
73. Poirier, O., Georges, J.L., Ricard, S., et al. (1998). New polymorphisms of the angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene and their associations with myocardial infarction and blood pressure: The ECTIM Study. Etude Cas-Temoin de l'Infarctus du Myocarde. Journal of Hypertension 16(10), 1443-1447.
74. Pueyo, M.E., Gonzalez, W., Nicoletti, A., Savoie, F., Arnal, J.F. & Michel, J.B. (2000). Angiotensin II stimulates endothelial vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 via nuclear factor-kappaB activation induced by intracellular oxidative stress. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology 20(3), 645-651.
75. Rankinen, T., Wolfarth, B., Simoneau, J.A., et al. (2000). No association between the angiotensin-converting enzyme ID polymorphism and elite endurance athlete status. Journal of Applied Physiology 88(5), 1571-1575.
76. Rigat, B., Hubert, C., Alhenc-Gelas, F., Cambien, F., Corvol, P. & Soubrier, F. (1990). An insertion/deletion polymorphism in the angiotensin Iconverting enzyme gene accounting for half the variance of serum enzyme levels. Journal of Clinical Investigation 86(4), 1343-1346.
77. Roltsch, M.H., Brown, M.D., Hand, B.D, et al. (2005). No association between ACE I/D polymorphism and cardiovascular hemodynamics during exercise in young women. International Journal of Sports Medicine 26(8), 638-644.
78. Sato, N., Katsuya, T., Rakugi, H., et al. (1997). Association of variants in critical core promoter element of angiotensinogen gene with increased risk of essential hypertension in Japanese. Hypertension 30(3 Pt 1), 321-325.
79. Schmieder, R.E., Martus, P. & Klingbeil, A. (1996). Reversal of left ventricular hypertrophy in essential hypertension. A meta-analysis of randomized doubleblind studies. JAMA 275(19), 1507-1513.
80. Schmieder, R.E., Schlaich, M.P., Klingbeil, A.U. & Martus, P. (1998). Update on reversal of left ventricular hypertrophy in essential hypertension (a metaanalysis of all randomized double-blind studies until December 1996). Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation 13(3), 564-569.
81. Schunkert, H., Dzau, V.J., Tang, S.S., Hirsch, A.T., Apstein, C.S. & Lorell, B.H. (1990). Increased rat cardiac angiotensin converting enzyme activity and mRNA expression in pressure overload left ventricular hypertrophy. Effects on coronary resistance, contractility, and relaxation. Journal of Clinical Investigation 86(6), 1913-1920.
82. Scott, W., Stevens, J. & Binder- Macleod, S.A. (2001). Human skeletal muscle fiber type classifications. Physical Therapy 81(11), 1810-1816.
83. Shenoy, U. & Cassis, L. (1997). Characterization of renin activity in brown adipose tissue. American Journal of Physiology 272(3 Pt 1), C989-C999.
84. Sonna, L.A., Sharp, M.A., Knapik, J.J., et al. (2001). Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype and physical performance during US army basic training. Journal of Applied Physiology 91(3), 1355-1363.
85. Staessen, J.A., Wang, J.G., Ginocchio, G., et al. (1997). The deletion/insertion polymorphism of the angiotensin converting enzyme gene and cardiovascular-renal risk. Journal of Hypertension 15(12 Pt 2), 1579-1592.
86. Taguchi, T., Kishikawa, H., Motoshima, H., et al. (2000). Involvement of bradykinin in acute exercise-induced increase of glucose uptake and GLUT-4 translocation in skeletal muscle: Studies in normal and diabetic humans and rats. Metabolism 49(7), 920-930.
87. Taylor, R.R., Mamotte, C.D., Fallon, K. & van Bockxmeer, F.M. (1999). Elite athletes and the gene for angiotensin-converting enzyme. Journal of Applied Physiology 87(3), 1035-1037.
88. Thompson, J., Raitt, J., Hutchings, L., et al. (2007). Angiotensin-converting enzyme genotype and successful ascent to extreme high altitude. High Altitude Medicine and Biology 8(4), 278-285.
89. Timmermans, P.B. & Smith, R.D. (1994). Angiotensin II receptor subtypes: Selective antagonists and functional correlates. European Heart Journal 15(Suppl. D), 79-87.
90. Tsianos, G., Sanders, J., Dhamrait, S., Humphries, S., Grant, S. & Montgomery, H. (2004). The ACE gene insertion/deletion polymorphism and elite endurance swimming. European Journal of Applied Physiology 92(3), 360-362.
91. Tsianos, G., Eleftheriou. K.I., Hawe, E., et al. (2005). Performance at altitude and angiotensin I-converting enzyme genotype. European Journal of Applied Physiology 93(5-6), 630-633.
92. Vakili, B.A., Okin, P.M. & Devereux, R.B. (2001). Prognostic implications of left ventricular hypertrophy. American Heart Journal 141(3), 334-341.
93. Villard, E., Tiret, L., Visvikis, S., Rakotovao, R., Cambien, F. & Soubrier, F. (1996). Identification of new polymorphisms of the angiotensin Iconverting enzyme (ACE) gene, and study of their relationship to plasma ACE levels by two-QTL segregationlinkage analysis. American Journal of Human Genetics 58(6), 1268-1278.
94. Wicklmayr, M., Dietze, G., Gunther, B., et al. (1980). The kallikrein-kinin system and muscle metabolism-clinical aspects. Agents and Actions 10(4), 339-343.
95. Williams, A.G., Rayson, M.P., Jubb, M., et al. (2000). The ACE gene and muscle performance. Nature 403(6770), 614.
96. Williams, A.G., Dhamrait, S.S., Wootton, P.T., et al. (2004). Bradykinin receptor gene variant and human physical performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 96(3), 938-942.
97. Wollert, K.C. & Drexler, H. (1999). The renin-angiotensin system and experimental heart failure. Cardiovascular Research 43(4), 838-849.
98. Woods, D.R., Humphries, S.E. & Montgomery, H.E. (2000). The ACE I/D polymorphism and human physical performance. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 11(10), 416-420.
99. Woods, D., Hickman, M., Jamshidi ,Y., et al. (2001a). Elite swimmers and the D allele of the ACE I/D polymorphism. Human Genetics 108(3), 230-232.
100. Woods, D., Onambele, G., Woledge, R., et al. (2001b). Angiotensin-I converting enzyme genotype-dependent benefit from hormone replacement therapy in isometric muscle strength and bone mineral density. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 86(5), 2200-2204.
101. Woods, D.R., Pollard, A.J., Collier, D.J., et al. (2002a). Insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin Iconverting enzyme gene and arterial oxygen saturation at high altitude. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine 166(3), 362-366.
102. Woods, D.R., World, M., Rayson, M.P., et al. (2002b). Endurance enhancement related to the human angiotensin Iconverting enzyme I-D polymorphism is not due to differences in the cardiorespiratory response to training. European Journal of Applied Physiology 86(3), 240-244.
103. Yildiz, A., Akkaya, V., Hatemi, A.C., et al. (2000). No association between deletion-type angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism and leftventricular hypertrophy in hemodialysis patients. Nephron 84(2), 130-135.
104. Yoneya, K., Okamoto, H., Machida, M., et al. (1995). Angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism in Japanese patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. American Heart Journal 130(5), 1089-1093.
105. Young, L.E., Rogers, K. & Wood, J.L. (2005). Left ventricular size and systolic function in thoroughbred racehorses and their relationships to race performance. Journal of Applied Physiology 99(4), 1278-1285.
106. Zhang, B., Tanaka, H., Shono, N., et al. (2003). The I allele of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene is associated with an increased percentage of slow-twitch type I fibers in human skeletal muscle. Clinical Genetics 63(2), 139-144.