"Rescues for humanity": Rescuers, mass atrocities, and transitional justice

Human Rights Quarterly

Volumn 34, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 1-38

  Dudai, Ron ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; HUMAN RIGHTS; SOCIAL JUSTICE;

EID: 84857527059     PISSN: 02750392     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/hrq.2012.0018     Document Type: Article

References (210)

1. Stanley Cohen, Denial and Acknowledgement: The Impact of Information About Human Rights Violations 4, 5, 111 (1995)
2. Stanley Cohen, Government Responses to Human Rights Reports: Claims, Denials, and Counterclaims, 18 Hum. Rts. Q. 517 (1996)
3. Richard A. Wilson, Representing Human Rights Violations: Social Contexts and Subjectivities, in Human Rights, Culture and Context: Anthropological Perspectives 134, 145, 155 (Richard A.Wilson ed., 1997)
4. Richard A. Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa 254 (2001)
5. Martha Huggins, Reconstructing Atrocity: How Torturers, Murderers, and Researchers Deconstruct Labels and Manage Secrecy, Hum. Rts. Rev., Dec. 2000, at 50, 52 (2000)
6. Bruna Irene Seu, "Your Stomach Makes You Feel That You Don't Want to Know Anything About It": Desensitization, Defense Mechanisms and Rhetoric in Response to Human Rights Abuses, 2 J. Hum. Rts. 183 (2003)
7. Ron Dudai, "Can You Describe This?" Human Rights Reports and What They Tell Us About the Human Rights Movement, in Humanitarianism and Suffering: The Mobilization of Empathy 245 (Richard Ashby Wilson & Richard D. Brown eds., 2009).
8. Mark A. Drumbl, Collective Violence and Individual Punishment: The Criminality of Mass Atrocity, 99 Nw. U.L. Rev. 539, 540 (2005)
9. Gerry Simpson, Law, War and Crime 54-78 (2007)
10. George P. Fletcher, Liberals and Romantics at War: The Problem of Collective Guilt, 111 Yale L.J. 1499, 1557 (2002)
11. Mark Osiel, Making Sense of Mass Atrocity 18-22 (2009).
12. Laurel E. Fletcher & Harvey M. Weinstein, Violence and Social Repair: Rethinking the Contribution of Justice to Reconciliation, 24 Hum. Rts. Q. 573, 579 (2002)
13. Jodi Halpern & Harvey M. Weinstein, Rehumanizing the Other: Empathy and Reconciliation, 26 Hum. Rts. Q. 561, 563-64 (2004).
14. Kieran McEvoy, Beyond Legalism: Towards a Thicker Understanding of Transitional Justice, 34 J. L. & Soc'y 411 (2007).
15. Sebastian Brett et al., Memorialization and Democracy: State Policy and Civic Action (2007), available at http://ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Global-Memorialization-Democracy-2007-English_0.pdf.
16. Louis Bickford, Unofficial Truth Projects, 29 Hum. Rts. Q. 994, 995 (2007)
17. Patricia Lundy & Mark McGovern, Whose Justice? Rethinking Transitional Justice from the Bottom Up, 35 J. L. & Soc'y 265 (2008)
18. Ron Dudai & Hillel Cohen, Dealing with the Past When the Conflict is Still Present: Civil Society Truth-Seeking in the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, in Localizing Transitional Justice: Interventions and Priorities After Mass Violence 228 (Rosalind Shaw & Lars Waldorf, with Pierre Hazan eds., 2010).
19. Localizing Transitional Justice, supra note 6.
20. Kieran McEvoy & Lorna McGregor, Transitional Justice From Below: An Agenda for Research, Policy and Praxis, in Transitional Justice from Below: Grassroots Activism and the Struggle for Change 1, 2 (Kieran McEvoy & Lorna McGregor eds. 2008).
21. Harvey M. Weinstein et al., Stay the Hand of Justice: Whose Priorities Take Priority?, in Localizing Transitional Justice, supra note 6, at 27, 47-48.
22. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, Dr. Albert Battel, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/YV/en/righteous/stories/battel.asp.
23. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, Elisabeth Abegg, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/stories/abegg.asp.
24. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, About the Program: Honoring the Righteous, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/honoring_the_righteous.asp.
25. See generally African Rights, Rwanda: Tribute to Courage (2002).
26. See Gardens of the Righteous Worldwide [GARIWO], available at http://www.gariwo.net/eng_new/.
27. Richard G. Hovannisian, Intervention and Shades of Altruism During the Armenian Genocide, in The Armenian Genocide: History, Politics, Ethics 173, 197 (Richard G. Hovannisian ed., 1992).
28. Harsh Mander, Unheard Voices: Stories of Forgotten Lives 160 (2001).
29. Harsh Mander, Fear and Forgiveness: The Aftermath of Massacre (2009).
30. Ashutosh Varshney, Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India 276 (2002).
31. Olivia Stokes Dreier, Relevance of Understanding Rescue Behavior for Peacebuilding Programs, Speech at Conference on Genocide, Rescue, and Prevention at Yale University (8 May 2009), available at http://www.karunacenter.org/documents/keynotes/FILE_7_-_Yale_talk.doc.
32. Adam Jones, Genocide: A Comprehensive Introduction 275 (2006).
33. Drumbl, supra note 2.
34. Ruti G. Teitel, Transitional Justice 4 (2000).
35. David Luban, A Theory of Crimes Against Humanity, 29 Yale J. Int'l L. 85, 86 (2004).
36. Kriangsak Kittichaisaree, International Criminal Law 85 (2001).
37. Id. at 90. A similar logic can apply to the concepts of genocide and war crimes.
38. Prosecutor v. Du [KO TADI], Case No. IT-94-1-A, Appeal Judgment, ¶ 271 (Int'l Crim. Trib. for the Former Yugoslavia, 15 July 1999).
39. Mark A. Drumbl, Atrocity, Punishment, and International Law (2007).
40. It is important to note that rescuers themselves would not necessarily articulate the meaning of their acts in the way described here and, from their perspective, their acts were not necessarily about "affirming humanity." This does not, however, change the way such acts can be recognized externally. This is similar to the commission of crimes against humanity, where the perpetrators would rarely see themselves as "offending humanity."
41. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights [OHCHR], Rule-of-Law Tools for Post-Conflict States: Prosecution Initiatives 11-12 (2006); System Criminality in International Law (André Nollkaemper & Harmen van der Wilt eds., 2009).
42. See, for example, the case of the Serb rescuers who were prosecuted for protecting Bosniaks, presented in the text accompanying footnote 181, infra.
43. Samuel P. Oliner & Pearl M. Oliner, The Altruistic Personality 6 (1988).
44. Id. at 6-7.
45. Paige Arthur, How "Transitions" Reshaped Human Rights: A Conceptual History of Transitional Justice, 31 Hum. Rts. Q. 321, 348 (2009).
46. Id. at 343.
47. See. e.g., Bickford, supra note 6, at 997
48. McEvoy & McGregor, supra note 8, at 411.
49. McEvoy, supra note 4.
50. Even when there is no risk to a potential helper, there is no universal law on the duty to rescue. Some European countries and a handful US states recognize a duty to assist-in so called "Good Samaritan laws"-though such laws are consciously rejected elsewhere, including in the United Kindgom and in a majority of US states. Even where "Good Samaritan laws" are in place they are rarely used and often ridiculed.
51. Damien Schiff, Samaritans: Good, Bad and Ugly: A Comparative Law Analysis, 11 Roger Williams Univ. L. Rev. 77 (2005)
52. Phillip W. Romohr, A Right/Duty Perspective on the Legal and Philosophical Foundations of the No-Duty-To-Rescue Rule, 55 Duke L.J. 1025 (2006).
53. Kirsten Hastrup, Representing the Common Good: The Limits of Legal Language, in Human Rights in Global P erspective: Anthropological Studies of Rights, Claims and Entitlements 16 (Richard Ashby Wilson & Jon P. Mitchell eds., 2003).
54. Joseph Raz, The Morality of Freedom 196 (1988).
55. International Council on Human Rights Policy, Taking Duties Seriously: Individual Duties in International Human Rights Law (1999)
56. Ben Saul, In the Shadow of Human Rights: Human Duties, Obligations, and Responsibilities, 32 Colum. Hum. Rts. L. Rev. 565, 617 (2001).
57. Andrew Clapham, The Role of the Individual in International Law, 21 Eur. J. Int'l L. 25, 27 (2010).
58. Ron Dudai, Advocacy with Footnotes: The Human Rights Report as a Literary Genre, 28 Hum. Rts. Q. 783, 783-84 (2006) (book review)
59. Dudai, "Can You Describe This?," supra note 1.
60. News Release, Human Rights Watch, Global: Human Rights Watch Honors Seven Activists, available at http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/08/09/global-human-rightswatch-honors-7-activists.
61. Declaration on the Right and Responsibility of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society to Promote and Protect Universally Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, adopted 9 Dec. 1998, G.A. Res. 53/144, U.N. GAOR, 53d Sess., 85th plen. mtg., Agenda Item 110(b), U.N. Doc. A/RES/53/144 (1999).
62. "Everyone who, as a result of his or her profession, can affect the human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms of others should respect those rights and freedoms and comply with relevant national and international standards of occupational and professional conduct or ethics." Id. art. 11.
63. Rajan Hoole, Sri Lanka: Ethnic Strife, Fratricide and the Peace vs. Human Rights Dilemma, 1 J. Hum. Rts. Prac. 120, 125 (2009).
64. Brett et al., supra note 5, at 1.
65. In addition, while the limitations of the human rights framework are important in this context, the relevant strengths of international human rights law should also be pointed out. The essence of many rescue activities is to disobey or violate local laws; the international law of human rights can serve to guide, legitimatize, and give normative orientation to such acts, serving as a neutral and external point of reference. This could also have practical manifestations, for example giving asylum to those persecuted as a result of their rescue activity.
66. David Backer, Civil Society and Transitional Justice: Possibilities, Patterns and Prospects, 2 J. Hum. Rts. 297, 301-02 (2003).
67. Hovannisian, supra note 15, at 174.
68. Ron Dudai, Informers and the Transition in Northern Ireland, 52 Brit. J. Crim. 1, 49-50 (2012).
69. Yad Vashem, About Yad Vashem, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/about/index.asp.
70. For example, Pierre Hazan locates the "genesis of transitional justice" in the Nuremberg trials, the reparation program, and the Eichmann trial. Pierre Hazan, Judging War, Judging History 13-28 (Sarah Meyer de Stadelhofen trans., 2010) (2007). Therese O'Donnell links the Nuremberg trials and de-Nazification program to the "birth of transitional justice." Therese O'Donnell, Executioners, Bystanders and Victims: Collective Guilt, the Legacy of Denazification and the Birth of Twentieth-Century Transitional Justice, 25 Legal Stud. 627, 628 (2005).
71. Jean Hatzfeld, Machete Season: The Killers in Rwanda Speak 114-117 (Linda Coverdale trans., 2005) (2003).
72. Donald E. Miller & Lorna Touryan Miller, Survivors: an Oral History of the Armenian Genocide 182 (1993).
73. GARIWO, Gardens of the Righteous Worldwide (homepage), available at http://www.gariwo.net/eng_new/
74. PRI, Summary, Gacaca and Reconciliation: Kibuye Case Study 1, available at http://www.penalreform.org/publications/gacaca-and-reconciliation-kibuyecase-study-1.
75. The overall story of Holocaust commemoration in Israel is complex, and also includes many problematic aspects, such as the way Holocaust memory is sometimes manipulated and used to legitimize Israel's abuses in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
76. Tom Segev, The Seventh Million: The Israelis and the Holocaust 422-435 (Haim Watzman trans., 2000) (1991).
77. These questions are, however, beyond the scope of this article, which focuses only on the Righteous Among the Nations project and its potential relevancy to other countries.
78. Martin Gilbert, The Righteous: The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust, at 15 (2003).
79. Oliner & Oliner, supra note 31, at 1.
80. Nechama Tec, When Light Pierced the Darkness: Christian Rescue of Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland 70-72, 125 (1986)
81. Eva Fogelman, Conscience & Courage: Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust 6-8 (1995).
82. Martyrs' and Heroes' Commemoration (Yad Va-Shem) Law, 5713-1953, _ LSI __(1953-1954) (Isr.). KMK 13.I8713 OSU
83. Interview with Irena Steinfeldt, Director of Righteous Among the Nations Section, Yad Vashem, The Israeli Holocaust Memorial Authority, in Jerusalem, Israel (Sept. 2008) [hereinafter Steinfeldt Interview].
84. Yad Vashem, About the Program: Program History, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/history.asp.
85. Yad Vashem, About the Program, supra note 62.
86. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, About the Righteous: Statistics, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp.
87. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, About the Program: How to Apply, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/how_to_apply.asp.
88. Steinfeldt Interview, supra note 62
89. Mordecai Paldiel, The Path of the Righteous: Gentile Rescuers of Jews During the Holocaust 5 (1993)
90. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, About the Program: The Commission for the Designation of the Righteous, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/commission.asp.
91. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, About the Program: Honoring the Righteous, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/honoring_the_righteous.asp.
92. Yad Vashem, The Righteous Among the Nations, About the Righteous: Commemorative Sites, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/commemoration.asp
93. Yad Vashem, The International School for Holocaust Studies, International Projects and Partnerships, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/education/international_projects/index.asp.
94. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Topics to Study: Rescue, available at http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005185.
95. James Mackenzie, France Renders Homage to Wartime Saviors of Jews, San Diego Union Trib., 18 Jan. 2007, available at http://legacy.signonsandiego.com/news/world/20070118-0514-france-holocaust-.html.
96. Silent Heroes Memorial Center, available at http://www.gedenkstaette-stille-helden.de/english.html.
97. Interview with Barbara Schieb, Silent Heroes Memorial Center, in Berlin, Germany (Nov. 2009) [hereinafter Schieb Interview].
98. African Rights, Rwanda: Death, Despair and Defiance 590 (1994).
99. Nigel Eltringham, Accounting for Horror: Post-Genocide Debates in Rwanda 97 (2004).
100. Villia Jefremovas, Acts of Human Kindness: Tutsi, Hutu and the Genocide, Iss ue: A Journal of Opinion, No. 2, at 28, 28 (1995).
101. African Rights, Rwanda: Tribute to Courage, supra note 13.
102. Ervin Staub, Preventing Violence and Generating Humane Values: Healing and Reconciliation in Rwanda, 85 Int'l Rev. Red Cross 791, 795 (2003), available at http://www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/irrc_852_staub.pdf.
103. PRI, Report on Monitoring and Research on the Gacaca. The Righteous: Between Oblivion and Reconciliation? Example of the Province of Kibuye (2004) [hereinafter PRI, The Righteous].
104. Id. at 65-67.
105. See IBUKA Bestows Honour to Persons Who Saved Tutsis, Hirondelle News Agency, 6 Aug. 2007, available at http://www.hirondellenews.com/content/view/9759/437/.
106. See Fourteen Honoured for Bravery During 1994 Genocide, Hirondelle News Agency, 17 Dec. 2007, available at http://www.hirondellenews.com/content/view/10434/461/.
107. Florence Mutesi, Pastor Showered with Gifts for Saving People, New Times (Rwanda), 10 Apr. 2008, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/200804100165.html.
108. Staub, supra note 77.
109. See the memorial website at Kigali Memorial Centre, Windows of Hope, available at http://www.kigalimemorialcentre.org/old/centre/exhibition/windowsofhope.html.
110. Edmund Kagire, Rwanda: Heroes' Day to be Celebrated at Village Level, New Times (Rwanda), 1 Feb. 2011, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/201002010604.html.
111. Valerie Rosoux, The Figure of the Righteous Individual in Rwanda, 58 Int'l Soc. Sci. J. 491, 496 (2006).
112. See Genocide Archive Rwanda, Rescuer Testimonies, available at http://www.genocidearchiverwanda.org.rw/index.php/Category:Rescuer_Testimonies.
113. Rosoux, supra note 86, at 497.
114. Susan Woodward, Balkan Tragedy: Chaos and Dissolution After the Cold War (1995).
115. Helmut Walser Smith, The Holocaust and Other Genocides: History, Representation, Ethics 184 (2002).
116. Interview with Snjezana Filipovic, Research and Documentation Center [RDC], in Brčko, Bosnia (July 2008) [hereinafter Filipovic Interview].
117. Neil J. Kritz & Jakob Finci, A Truth and Reconciliation Commission in Bosnia and Herzegovina: An Idea Whose Time Has Come, 3 Int'l L. Forum 50, 53 (2001) (emphasis added).
118. Id. at 53-54.
119. Neil Kritz, The Rule of Law in Conflict Management, in Leashing the Dogs of War: Conflict Management in a Divided World 401, 415 (Chester A. Crocker, Fen Osler Hampton & Pamela Aall eds., 2007).
120. Kristen Cibelli & Tamy Guberek, Justice Unknown, Justice Unsatisfied?: Bosnian NGOs Speak About the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia 20 (2000).
121. Interview with Adnan Ramic, GARIWO, in Sarajevo, Bosnia (July 2008) [hereinafter Ramic Interview].
122. GARIWO Sarajevo, Projects, available at http://www.gariwo.org/site/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=14:projects&lang=bs-BA.
123. Dusko Kondor Award for Civil Courage, available at http://www.norveska.ba/News_and_events/Society-and-Policy/Dusko-Kondor-Award-for-Civil-Courage-2011/.
124. Id.
125. Filipovic Interview, supra note 91.
126. Zarko Radoja, Sećanje na Srd{stroke}ana [Memory of Srdjan], E-Novine, 16 Oct. 2008, available at http://www.e-novine.com/index.php?news=17983.
127. Press Release, Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Bosnia and Herzegovinia, Charter of Helsinki Committee for Srdjan Aleksic (27 Mar. 2007), available at http://www.bh-hchr.org/Statements/e27-03-07.htm.
128. Sr-Do (Radio Television of Serbia broadcast 2007).
129. Drazen Remkovic, Film Celebrates Young Serb Who Died Defying Hatred, Balkan Insight, 4 July 2011, available at http://www.balkaninsight.com/en/article/film-celebrates-youngserb-who-died-defying-hatred
130. Igor Jovanovic, Tribute to a Modern-Day Hero, Southeast European Times, 25 Aug. 2009, available at http://www.setimes.com/cocoon/setimes/xhtml/en_GB/features/setimes/features/2009/08/25/feature-01.
131. Id.
132. Another example for recognizing acts of humanity, beyond these three contexts, is the "Heroes Summit" which was held in Burundi in 2004, honoring individuals who took risks to protect members of other ethnic groups during the conflicts in Burundi. The project was credited with transforming "many who were called traitors by their own group into popular celebrities.".
133. Charles Villa-Vicencio, Paul Nantulya & Tyrone Savage, Building Nations: Transitional Justice in the African Great Lakes Region 28 (2005).
134. Erin Daly & Jeremy Sarkin, Reconciliation in Divided Societies: Finding Common Ground (2007).
135. Dean Ajdukovic & Dinka Corkalo, Trust and Betrayal in War, in My Neighbor, My Enemy: Justice and Community in the Aftermath of Mass Atrocity 287 (Eric Stover & Harvey M. Weinstein eds., 2004).
136. Halpern & Weinstein, Rehumanizing the Other, supra note 3, at 569.
137. Id. at 583.
138. Nevin T. Aiken, Learning to Live Together: Transitional Justice and Intergroup Reconciliation in Northern Ireland, 4 Int'l J. Transitional Just. 166, 167 (2010).
139. Halpern & Weinstein, Rehumanizing the Other, supra note 3, at 579.
140. Id. at 567.
141. Gary Jonathan Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals 297-98 (2000).
142. Antonio Cassese, Reflections on International Criminal Justice, 61 Mod. L. Rev. 1, 6 (1998).
143. Kritz & Finci, supra note 92, at 53.
144. Ramic Interview, supra note 96.
145. Kritz & Finci, supra note 92, at 53.
146. Interview by Vesna Peric Zimonjic with Mirsad Tokaca, Founder of the Regional Documentation Centre, in Sarajevo (14 June 2010), available at http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=51809.
147. Staub, supra note 77, at 795.
148. Id.
149. Eltringham, supra note 74, at 97 (emphasis removed).
150. See IBUKA Bestows Honour to Persons Who Saved Tutsis, supra note 80.
151. Hanna Yablonka, The State of Israel vs. Adolf Eichmann 192 (2004).
152. Halpern & Weinsten, Rehumanizing the Other, supra note 3, at 581.
153. Omer Bartov, Germany's War and the Holocaust: Disputed Histories 179 (2003).
154. Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life 180 (1999).
155. Id.
156. Arne Johan Vetlesen, Genocide: A Case for the Responsibility of the Bystander, 37 J. Peace Res. 519, 520 (2000).
157. Fletcher & Weinstein, Violence and Social Repair, supra note 3, at 580.
158. Karl Jaspers, The Question of German Guilt (E.B. Ashton trans., 1947).
159. By largely ignoring the structural abuses of the apartheid system and focusing on direct perpetrators of exceptional and spectacular violence, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission provided a narrative of denial to the many who fail to stop violence, who were involved in the design and implementation of apartheid policies, or who simply benefited from operating and living in privileged positions.
160. Paul Gready, The Era of Transitional Justice: The Aftermath of The Truth and Reconciliation Commission in South Africa and Beyond (2011)
161. Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation, supra note 1.
162. Laurel E. Fletcher, Facing Up to the Past: Bystanders and Transitional Justice, 20 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 47, 47 (2007).
163. Fletcher & Weinstein, Violence and Social Repair, supra note 3, at 615.
164. Fletcher, Facing Up to the Past, supra note 133, at 51.
165. PRI, The Righteous, supra note 78, at 19.
166. Schieb Interview, supra note 72.
167. Stanley Cohen, States of Denial: Knowing About Atrocities and Suffering (2001).
168. Oliner & Oliner, supra note 31, at 2.
169. Paldiel, supra note 66, at 6.
170. Laurel E. Fletcher, From Indifference to Engagement: Bystanders and International Criminal Justice, 26 Mich. J. Int'l L. 1013, 1029 (2005).
171. It should be noted that there could be a tension between using the figure of the rescuer in order to foster reconciliation and using it in order to confront the role of bystanders. In both cases the rescuers are invoked to de-homogenize collective groups. However, where promoting reconciliation is the focus, the main audience consists of members of the victim group and the rescuers are used to counter the notion that the other group are all perpetrators; where the focus is on bystanders, however, the main audience consists of members of the group in whose name the atrocities were carried out and the rescuer is used to counter alibis for inaction.
172. See Promotion and Protection of Human Rights: Study on the Right to the Truth. Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, U.N. ESCOR, Comm'n on Hum. Rts., 62d Sess., Agenda Item 17, U.N. Doc. E/CN.4/2006/91 (2006).
173. Filipovic Interview, supra note 91.
174. "A Journey of Discovery": Righteous Department Director Retires After 24 Years, Yad Vashem Jerusalem Q. Mag., Spring 2007, at 16, available at http://www1.yadvashem.org/yv/en/pressroom/magazine/pdf/yv_magazine45.pdf.
175. Hotel Rwanda (Lion's Gate Entertainment & United Artists 2004).
176. Lena Khor, Human Rights and Network Power, 33 Hum. Rts. Q. 105 (2011).
177. Mathew Stein & Magnus Mazimpaka, Who is the Real Paul Rusesabagina?, The Independent (Kampala), 1 July 2011, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/201107041322.html.
178. Hotel Rwanda, supra note 146.
179. Paul Rusesabagina with Tom Zoellner, An Ordinary Man: An Autobiography (2006).
180. Stein & Mazimpaka, supra note 148.
181. Tom Hagler, Rescued by an African Schindler, Sunday Times (London), 6 Feb. 2005.
182. Arthur Asiimwe, "Hotel Rwanda" Hero in Bitter Controversy, Reuters, 4 Apr. 2007, available at http://www.reuters.com/article/2007/04/04/us-rwanda-genocide-ilmidUSL0420968620070404.
183. Stein & Mazimpaka, supra note 148.
184. Sulah Nuwamanya, Genocide Ghost Haunting Hotel Rwanda "Hero," New Times (Rwanda), 21 May 2006, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/200605220367.html.
185. Terry George, Smearing a Hero, Wash. Post, 10 May 2006, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/09/AR2006050901242.html.
186. Rosoux, supra note 86, at 494.
187. Diana Jean Schemo, Good Germans: Honoring the Heroes. Hiding the Holocaust, N.Y. Times, 12 June 1994, available at http://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/12/weekinreview/ideas-trends-good-germans-honoring-the-heroes-hiding-the-holocaust.html.
188. Id.
189. Gilbert, supra note 58, at 18.
190. United States Institute of Peace, A Multimedia Online Atlas of War Crimes in Bosnia-Herzegovina, available at http://www.usip.org/print/publications/multimedia-online-atlaswar-crimes-in-bosnia-herzegovina.
191. Charlotte Kyakwera, Where is Rusesabagina's Sacrifice?, New Times (Rwanda), 1 Mar. 2006, available at http://allafrica.com/stories/200603010708.html.
192. Rosoux, supra note 86, at 491.
193. Meisha Perrin, Rusesabagina's Story Questioned During Speech at University of Central Florida, Umuvugizi, available at http://umuvugizi.wordpress.com/2011/05/28/rusesabaginas-story-questioned-during-speech-at-university-of-central-florida/.
194. Steinfeldt Interview, supra note 62.
195. Asiimwe, supra note 153.
196. Kyakwera, supra note 162.
197. Mahmood Mamdani, When Victims Become Killers: Colonialism, Nativism, and the Genocide in Rwanda 220 (2002).
198. Id. at 221.
199. Jefremovas, supra note 75, at 28.
200. PRI, The Righteous, supra note 78, at 15.
201. Smith, supra note 90, at 184.
202. Bob Moore, The Rescue of Jews from Nazi Persecution: A Western European Perspective, 5 J. Genocide Res. 293, 306 (2003).
203. Steinfeldt Interview, supra note 62.
204. Id.
205. Hero or Traitor? Oskar Schindler Still Divides, Deutsche Welle, 28 Apr. 2008, available at http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,3297686,00.html.
206. Suzanne Vromen, Hidden Children of the Holocaust: Belgian Nuns and Their Daring Rescue of Young Jews from the Nazis 126 (2008).
207. Tristan Anne Borer, A Taxonomy of Victims and Perpetrators: Human Rights and Reconciliation in South Africa, 25 Hum. Rts. Q. 1088 (2003).
208. Kritz & Finci, supra note 92, at 53.
209. Ramic Interview, supra note 96; Filipovic Interview, supra note 91.
210. Statement 710399 (XY Films 2006).