"If one doesn't get you another one will": Formerly incarcerated persons' perceptions of discrimination

Prison Journal

Volumn 92, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 63-87

  LeBel, Thomas P ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MILWAUKEE   (United States)

Author keywords

discrimination; prisoner reentry; self esteem; stigma

Indexed keywords

EID: 84856253000     PISSN: 00328855     EISSN: 15527522     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032885511429243     Document Type: Article

References (89)

1. Barrett P.M.Captive audience: How a chaplain spread extremism to an inmate flock.Wall Street Journal. 2003;:A1.
2. Berger B.E.,Ferrans C.E.,Lashley F.R.Measuring stigma in people with HIV: Psychometric assessment of the HIV stigma scale.Research in Nursing & Health. 2001;24:518-529.
3. BloomB.OwenB.CovingtonS. (2003). Gender responsive strategies: Research, practice, and guiding principles for women offenders (Report prepared for the National Institute of Corrections). Retrieved from http://nicic.gov/library/018017.
4. Branscombe N.R.,Schmitt M.T.,Harvey R.D.Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;77:135-149.
5. Christian J.,Veysey B.M.,Herrschaft B.,Tubman-Carbone H. Moments of transformation: Formerly incarcerated individuals' narratives of change. How offenders transform their lives. Veysey B.M.Christian J.Martinez D.J., ed. Cullompton, UK: Willan; 2009:12-29.
6. Clear T.R.Imprisoning communities: How mass incarceration makes disadvantaged neighborhoods worse. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2007:.
7. Cooley C.H.Human nature and the social order. New York, NY: Scribners; 1912:.
8. Corrigan P.,Thompson V.,Lambert D.,Sangster Y.,Noel J.G.,Campbell J.Perceptions of discrimination among persons with serious mental illness.Psychiatric Services. 2003;54:1105-1110.
9. Crocker J.,Major B.Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma.Psychological Review. 1989;96:608-630.
10. Crocker, J., Major, B., & Steele, C. (1998). Social stigma. In D.T. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 504-553). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
11. Edwards K.A.Stigmatizing the stigmatized: A note on the mentally ill prison inmate.International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 2000;44:480-489.
12. Fishman L.T. AIDS, violence, and matters of respect: Family and peer relations of African-American and Latino convicted felons. Victimizing vulnerable groups: Images of uniquely high-risk crime targets. Coston C.T., ed. Westport, CT: Praeger; 2004:140-169.
13. Goffman E.Stigma: On the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1963:.
14. Greenfeld L.A.,Snell T.L.Women offenders. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Special Report; 1999:.
15. Harris A.R.Race, commitment to deviance and spoiled identity.American Sociological Review. 1976;41:432-442.
16. Hartwell S.W.Comparison of offenders with mental illness only and offenders with dual diagnoses.Psychiatric Services. 2004;55:145-150.
17. The social psychology of stigma. Heatherton T.F.Kleck R.E.Hebl M.R.Hull J.G., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2000:.
18. Hebl M.R.,Kleck R.E. The social consequences of physical disability. The social psychology of stigma. Heatherton T.Kleck R.E.Hebl M.R.Hull J.G., ed. New York, NY: Guilford; 2000:419-439.
19. Herek G.M.,Garnets L.D.Sexual orientation and mental health.Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 2007;3:353-375.
20. Herek G.M.,Gillis J. R,Cogan J.C.Internalized stigma among sexual minority adults: Insights from a social psychological perspective.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2009;56 (1): 32-43.
21. Hirschfield P.J.,Piquero A.R.Normalization and legitimation: Modeling stigmatizing attitudes toward ex-offenders.Criminology. 2010;48 (1): 27-55.
22. James D.J.,Glaze L.E.Mental health problems of prison and jail inmates. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice; 2006:.
23. Jones E.E.,Farina A.,Hastorf A.H.,Markus H.,Miller D.T.,Scott R.A.Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1984:.
24. Kaiser C.R.,Major B.A social psychological perspective on perceiving and reporting discrimination.Law and Social Inquiry. 2006;31:801-830.
25. Kessler R.C.,Mickelson K.D.,Williams D.R.The prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1999;40:208-230.
26. Krieger N.,Sidney S.Prevalence and health implications of anti-gay discrimination: A study of Black and White women and men in the CARDIA cohort.International Journal of Health Services. 1997;27 (1): 157-176.
27. Leary M.R.,Baumeister R.F. The nature and function of self-esteem: Sociometer theory. Advances in experimental social psychology. Zanna M.P., ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 2000:1-62.
28. LeBel T.P.An examination of the impact of formerly incarcerated persons helping others.Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 2007;46 (1/2): 1-24.
29. LeBel T.P. Formerly incarcerated persons' use of advocacy/activism as a coping orientation in the reintegration process. How offenders transform their lives. Veysey B.M.Christian J.Martinez D.J., ed. Cullompton, UK: Willan; 2009:165-187.
30. LeBel T.P.Invisible stripes? Formerly incarcerated persons' perceptions of stigma.Deviant Behavior. in press;:.
31. LeBel T.P.,Burnett R.,Maruna S.,Bushway S.The "chicken and egg" of subjective and social factors in desistance from crime.European Journal of Criminology. 2008;5 (2): 130-158.
32. After prison: Roadblocks to reentry: A report on state legal barriers facing people with criminal records. New York, NY: Author; 2004:.
33. Link B.G.,Struening E.L.,Neese-Todd S.,Asmussen S.,Phelan J.C.On describing and seeking to change the experience of stigma.Psychiatric Rehabilitation Skills. 2002;6:201-231.
34. Link B.G.,Struening E.L.,Rahav M.,Phelan J.C.,Nuttbrock L.On stigma and its consequences: Evidence from a longitudinal study of men with dual diagnosis of mental illness and substance abuse.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1997;38:177-190.
35. Link B.G.,Cullen F.T.,Struening E.L.,Shrout P.,Dohrenwend B.P.A modified labeling theory approach in the area of the mental disorders: An empirical assessment.American Sociological Review. 1989;54:400-423.
36. Link B.G.,Yang L.H.,Phelan J.C.,Collins P.Y.Measuring mental illness stigma.Schizophrenia Bulletin. 2004;30:511-541.
37. Luoma J.B.,Twohig M.P.,Waltz T.,Hayes S.C.,Roget N.,Padilla M.,Fisher G.An investigation of stigma in individuals receiving treatment for substance abuse.Addictive Behaviors. 2007;32:1331-1346.
38. Major B.,Quinton W.J.,McCoy S.K. Antecedents and consequences of attributions to discrimination: Theoretical and empirical advances. Advances in experimental social psychology. Zanna M.P., ed. Boston, MA: Academic Press; 2002:251-330.
39. Major B.,Quinton W.J.,McCoy S.K.,Schmader T.Reducing prejudice and discrimination. Oskamp S., ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 2000:211-237.
40. Mak W.W. S.,Poon C.Y. M.,Pun L.Y. K.,Cheung S.F.Meta-analysis of stigma and mental health.Social Science & Medicine. 2007;65:245-261.
41. Markowitz F.E.The effects of stigma on the psychological well-being and life satisfaction of persons with mental illness.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 1998;39:335-347.
42. Maruna S.,LeBel T.P.Welcome home? Examining the reentry court concept from a strengths-based perspective.Western Criminology Review. 2003;4 (2): 1-37.
43. Maruschak L.M.HIV in prisons, 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2006:.
44. Maruschak L.M.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2009:.
45. Invisible punishment: The collateral consequences of mass imprisonment. Mauer M.Chesney-Lind M., ed. New York, NY: The New Press; 2002:.
46. Mead G.H.Mind, self and society: From the standpoint of a social behaviorist. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 1934:.
47. Mendoza-Denton R.,Downey G.,Purdie V.,Davis A.,Pietrzak J.Sensitivity to status-based rejection: Implications for African American students' college experience.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2002;83:896-918.
48. Messina N.,Burdon W.,Hagopian G.,Prendergast M.One year return to custody rates among co-disordered offenders.Behavioral Sciences and the Law. 2004;22:503-518.
49. Meyer I.H.Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence.Psychology Bulletin. 2003;129:674-697.
50. Minior T.,Galea S.,Stuber J.,Ahern J.,Ompad D.Racial differences in discrimination experiences and responses among minority substance users.Ethnicity & Disease. 2003;13:521-527.
51. Mumola C.J.,Karberg J.C.Drug use and dependence, state and federal prisoners, 2004. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2006:.
52. Health status of soon-to-be released inmates: A report to Congress. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice, National Commission on Correctional Health Care; 2002:.
53. O'Brien P.Making it in the "free world": Women in transition from prison. Albany, NY: SUNY Press; 2001:.
54. Pager D.Marked: Race, crime, and finding work in an era of mass incarceration. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press; 2007:.
55. Pager D.,Shepherd H.The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and consumer markets.Annual Review of Sociology. 2008;34:181-209.
56. Petersilia J.When prisoners come home: Parole and prisoner reentry. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2003:.
57. Pew Research Center. (2007). Muslim Americans: Middle class and mostly mainstream. Retrieved from http://pewresearch.org/assets/pdf/muslim-americans.pdf.
58. Pinel E.C.Stigma consciousness: The psychological legacy of social stereotypes.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 1999;76:114-128.
59. Report of the re-entry policy council: Charting the safe and successful return of prisoners to the community. New York, NY: Council of State Governments; 2005:.
60. Reiman J.The rich get richer and the poor get prison: Ideology, class, and criminal justice. 2004). The rich get richer and the poor get prison: Ideology, class, and criminal justice (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.Boston, MA: Pearson; 2004:.
61. Ren X.S.,Amick B.C.,Williams D.R.Racial/ethnic disparities in health: The interplay between discrimination and socioeconomic status.Ethnicity & Disease. 1999;9:151-165.
62. Richie B.Challenges incarcerated women face as they return to their communities: Findings from life history interviews.Crime & Delinquency. 2001;47:368-389.
63. Rosario M.,Hunter J.,Maguen S.,Gwadz M.,Smith R.The coming-out process and its adaptational and health-related associations among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: Stipulation and exploration of a model.American Journal of Community Psychology. 2001;29:113-160.
64. Rose D.R.,Clear T.R. Incarceration, reentry, and social capital: Social networks in the balance. Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on children, families, and communities. Travis J.Waul M., ed. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press; 2003:313-341.
65. Rosenberg M.Society and the adolescent self-image. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press; 1989:.
66. Rosenberg M.,Owens T.J. Low self-esteem people: A collective portrait. Extending self-esteem theory and research: Sociological and psychological currents. Owens T.J.Stryker S.Goodman N., ed. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2001:400-436.
67. Schmitt M.T.,Branscombe N.R.,Kobrynowicz D.,Owen S.Perceiving discrimination against one's gender group has different implications for well-being in women and men.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 2002;28:197-210.
68. Sellers R.M.,Shelton J.N.The role of racial identity in perceived racial discrimination.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 2003;84:1079-1092.
69. Shih M.Positive stigma: Examining resilience and empowerment in overcoming stigma.Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences. 2004;591:175-185.
70. Spalek B.Communities, identities and crime. Bristol, UK: Policy Press; 2008:.
71. Steadman H.J.,Osher F.C.,Robbins P.C.,Case B.,Samuels S.Prevalence of serious mental illness among jail inmates.Psychiatric Services. 2009;60:761-765.
72. Stuber J.,Schlesinger M.Sources of stigma for means-tested government programs.Social Science & Medicine. 2006;63:933-945.
73. Prejudice: The target's perspective. Swim J.K.Stangor C., ed. San Diego, CA: Academic Press; 1998:.
74. Szymanski D.M.,Gupta A.Examining the relationship between multiple internalized oppressions and African American lesbian, gay, bisexual, and questioning persons' self-esteem and psychological distress.Journal of Counseling Psychology. 2009;56 (1): 110-118.
75. Taub D.,McLorg P.,Fanflik P.Stigma management strategies among women with physical disabilities: Contrasting approaches of downplaying or claiming a disability status.Deviant Behavior. 2004;25:169-190.
76. Tonry M.The social, psychological, and political causes of racial disparities in the American criminal justice system.Crime & Justice. 2010;39:273-312.
77. Travis J.But they all come back: Facing the challenges of prisoner reentry. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press; 2005:.
78. Twenge J.,Crocker J.Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000).Psychological Bulletin. 2002;128:371-408.
79. Uggen C.Criminology and the sociology of deviance.Criminologist. 2003;28 (3): 1-5.
80. Van Brakel W.H.Measuring health-related stigma-A literature review.Psychology, Health, and Medicine. 2006;11:307-34.
81. van OlphenJ.EliasonM. J.FreudenbergN.BarnesM. (2009). Nowhere to go: How stigma limits the options of female drug users after release from jail. Substance Abuse Treatment, Prevention, & Policy, 4, 1-10. Retrieved from http://www.substanceabusepolicy.com/content/pdf/1747-597X-4-10.pdf.
82. Visher C.A.,Mallik-Kane K. Reentry experiences of men with health problem. Public health behind bars: From prisons to communities. Greifinger R.B., ed. New York, NY: Springer; 2007:434-460.
83. Welch M.The correctional response to prisoners with HIV/AIDS: Morality, metaphors, and myths.Social Pathology: A Journal of Reviews. 2000;6 (2): 121-142.
84. West H.C.,Sabol W.J.,Greenman S.J.Prisoners in 2009. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics; 2010:.
85. Winnick T.A.,Bodkin M.Stigma, secrecy and race: An empirical examination of black and white incarcerated men.American Journal of Criminal Justice. 2009;34 (1/2): 131-150.
86. Winnick T.A.,Bodkin M.Anticipated stigma and stigma management among those to be labeled "ex-con.".Deviant Behavior. 2008;29:295-333.
87. Wright E.R.,Gronfein W.P.,Owens T.J.Deinstitutionalization, social rejection, and the self-esteem of former mental patients.Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2000;41:69-90.
88. Wynn J.Inside Rikers: Stories from the world's largest penal colony. New York, NY: St. Martin's Press; 2001:.
89. Young M.,Stuber J.,Ahern J.,Galea S.Interpersonal discrimination and the health of illicit drug users.American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. 2005;31:371-391.