Distinguishing Norm-Based From Exemplar-Based Coding of Identity in Children: Evidence From Face Identity Aftereffects

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance

Volumn 37, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1824-1840

  Jeffery, Linda ^a   Rhodes, Gillian ^a   McKone, Elinor ^a,b   Pellicano, Elizabeth ^b,c   Crookes, Kate ^b   Taylor, Elizabeth ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^b AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aftereffects; Children; Development; Face perception; Face space; Norm based coding

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE; ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; FACE; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PATTERN RECOGNITION; PHOTOSTIMULATION; RECOGNITION; VISION;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; CHILD; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; FACE; FEMALE; FIGURAL AFTEREFFECT; HUMANS; MALE; PATTERN RECOGNITION, VISUAL; PHOTIC STIMULATION; RECOGNITION (PSYCHOLOGY); YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 83055188667     PISSN: 00961523     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0025643     Document Type: Article

References (68)

1. Abboud H., Schultz H., Zeitlin V. Superlab 4.0 [Computer software] 2008, Cedrus Corporation, San Pedro, CA.
2. Anderson N.D., Wilson H.R. The nature of synthetic face adaptation. Vision Research 2005, 45:1815-1828. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.01.012.
3. Anzures G., Mondloch C.J., Lackner C. Face adaptation and attractiveness aftereffects in 8-year-olds and adults. Child Development 2009, 80:178-191. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01253.x.
4. Baudouin J.-Y., Gallay M., Durand K., Robichon F. The development of perceptual sensitivity to second-order facial relations in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2010, 107:195-206. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.05.008.
5. Bruce V., Campbell R.N., Doherty-Sneddon G., Import A., Langton S., McAuley S., Wright R. Testing face processing skills in children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology 2000, 18:319-333. doi: 10.1348/026151000165715.
6. Burkhardt A., Blaha L.M., Jurs B.S., Rhodes G., Jeffery L., Wyatte D., Busey T. Adaptation modulates the electrophysiological substrates of perceived facial distortion: Support for opponent coding. Neuropsychologia 2010, 48:3743-3756. doi: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.08.016.
7. Carbon C.-C., Ditye T. Sustained effects of adaptation on the perception of familiar faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, Advance online publication 2010, doi: 10.1037/a0019949.
8. Carbon C.-C., Leder H. Face adaptation: Changing stable representations of familiar faces within minutes? Advances in Cognitive Psychology 2005, 1:1-7. doi: 10.2478/v10053-008-0038-8.
9. Carbon C.-C., Leder H. The Mona Lisa effect: Is 'our' Lisa fame or fake? Perception 2006, 35:411-414. doi: 10.1068/p5452.
10. Carbon C.-C., Strobach T., Langton S.R.H., Harsanyi G., Leder H., Kovács G. Adaptation effects of highly familiar faces: Immediate and long lasting. Memory & Cognition 2007, 35:1966-1976. doi: 10.3758/BF03192929.
11. Carey S., Diamond R., Woods B. Development of face recognition: A maturational component? Developmental Psychology 1980, 16:257-269. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.16.4.257.
12. Chang P.P.W., Levine S.C., Benson P.J. Children's recognition of caricatures. Developmental Psychology 2002, 38:1038-1051. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.38.6.1038.
13. Crookes K., McKone E. Early maturity of face recognition: No childhood development of holistic processing, novel face encoding, or face-space. Cognition 2009, 111:219-247. doi: 10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.004.
14. de Haan M., Johnson M.H., Maurer D., Perrett D.I. Recognition of individual faces and average face prototypes by 1- and 3-month-old infants. Cognitive Development 2001, 16:659-678. doi: 10.1016/S0885-2014(01)00051-X.
15. de Heering A., de Liedekerke C., Deboni M., Rossion B. The role of experience during childhood in shaping the other-race effect. Developmental Science 2010, 13:181-187. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00876.x.
16. de Heering A., Houthuys S., Rossion B. Holistic face processing is mature at 4 years of age: Evidence from the composite face effect. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2007, 96:57-70. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.07.001.
17. Freiwald W.A., Tsao D.Y., Livingstone M.S. A face feature space in the macaque temporal lobe. Nature Neuroscience 2009, 12:1187-1196. doi: 10.1038/nn.2363.
18. Gilchrist A., McKone E. Early maturity of face processing in children: Local and relational distinctiveness effects in 7-year-olds. Visual Cognition 2003, 10:769-793. doi: 10.1080/13506280344000022.
19. Hills P.J., Holland A.M., Lewis M.B. Aftereffects for face attributes with different natural variability: Children are more adaptable than adolescents. Cognitive Development 2010, 25:278-289. doi: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2010.01.002.
20. Jaquet E., Rhodes G. Face aftereffects indicate dissociable, but not distinct, coding of male and female faces. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2008, 34:101-112. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.34.1.101.
21. Jeffery L., McKone E., Haynes R., Firth E., Pellicano E., Rhodes G. Four-to-six-year-old children use norm-based coding in face-space. Journal of Vision 2010, 10:18-19. doi: 10.1167/10.5.18.
22. Johnston R.A., Ellis H.D. Age effects in the processing of typical and distinctive faces. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology 1995, 48:447-465.
23. Leonard H.C., Karmiloff-Smith A., Johnson M.H. The development of spatial frequency biases in face recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2010, 106:193-207. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.03.005.
24. Leopold D.A., Bondar I.V., Giese M.A. Norm-based face encoding by single neurons in the monkey inferotemporal cortex. Nature 2006, 442:572-575. doi: 10.1038/nature04951.
25. Leopold D.A., O'Toole A.J., Vetter T., Blanz V. Prototype-referenced shape encoding revealed by high-level aftereffects. Nature Neuroscience 2001, 4:89-94. doi: 10.1038/82947.
26. Little A.C., DeBruine L.M., Jones B.C. Sex-contingent face after-effects suggest distinct neural populations code male and female faces. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 2005, 272:2283-2287. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3220.
27. Macchi Cassia V., Picozzi M., Kuefner D., Bricolo E., Turati C. Holistic processing for faces and cars in preschool-aged children and adults: Evidence from the composite effect. Developmental Science 2009, 12:236-248. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00765.x.
28. Maddess T., McCourt M., Blakeslee B., Cunningham R. Factors governing the adaptation of cells in area-17 of the cat visual cortex. Biological Cybernetics 1988, 59:229-236. doi: 10.1007/BF00332911.
29. Maurer D., Le Grand R., Mondloch C.J. The many faces of configural processing. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2002, 6:255-260. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01903-4.
30. Maxwell D. Gryphon Morph 2.5 [Computer software] 1994, Gryphon Software Corporation.
31. McKone E., Boyer B.L. Four-year olds are sensitive to second-order relational changes in face distinctiveness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2006, 94:134-162. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2006.01.001.
32. Mondloch C.J., Dobson K.S., Parsons J., Maurer D. Why 8-year-olds cannot tell the difference between Steve Martin and Paul Newman: Factors contributing to the slow development of sensitivity to the spacing of facial features. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2004, 89:159-181. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0965(04)00108-0.
33. Mondloch C.J., Geldart S., Maurer D., Le Grand R. Developmental changes in face processing skills. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2003, 86:67-84. doi: 10.1016/S0022-0965(03)00102-4.
34. Mondloch C.J., Le Grand R., Maurer D. Configural face processing develops more slowly than featural face processing. Perception 2002, 31:553-566. doi: 10.1068/p3339.
35. Mondloch C.J., Le Grand R., Maurer D. Development of expertise in face recognition. Perceptual expertise: Bridging brain and behavior 2010, Oxford University Press, New York, NY. I. Gauthier, M.J. Tarr, D. Bub (Eds.).
36. Mondloch C.J., Maurer D., Ahola S. Becoming a face expert. Psychological Science 2006, 17:930-934. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01806.x.
37. Mondloch C.J., Thomson K. Limitations in 4-year-old children's sensitivity to the spacing among facial features. Child Development 2008, 79:1513-1523. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01202.x.
38. Movshon J.A., Lennie P. Pattern-selective adaptation in visual cortical neurones. Nature 1979, 278:850-852. doi: 10.1038/278850a0.
39. Myowayamakoshi M., Yamaguchi M.K., Tomonaga M., Tanaka M., Matsuzawa T. Development of face recognition in infant chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Cognitive Development 2005, 20:49-63. doi: 10.1016/j.cogdev.2004.12.002.
40. Nishimura M., Maurer D., Gao X. Exploring children's face-space: A multidimensional scaling analysis of the mental representation of facial identity. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2009, 103:355-375. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.02.005.
41. Nishimura M., Maurer D., Jeffery L., Pellicano E., Rhodes G. Fitting the child's mind to the world: Adaptive norm-based coding of facial identity in 8-year-olds. Developmental Science 2008, 11:620-627. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00706.x.
42. Pedelty L., Levine S.C., Shevell S.K. Developmental changes in face processing: Results from multidimensional scaling. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 1985, 39:421-436. doi: 10.1016/0022-0965(85)90050-5.
43. Pellicano E., Jeffery L., Burr D., Rhodes G. Abnormal adaptive face-coding mechanisms in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Current Biology 2007, 17:1508-1512. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2007.07.065.
44. Pellicano E., Rhodes G. Holistic processing of faces in preschool children and adults. Psychological Science 2003, 14:618-622. doi: 10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1474.x.
45. Pellicano E., Rhodes G., Peters M. Are preschoolers sensitive to configural information in faces? Developmental Science 2006, 9:270-277. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2006.00489.x.
46. Picozzi M., Macchi Cassia V., Turati C., Vescovo E. The effect of inversion on 3- to 5-year-olds' recognition of face and nonface visual objects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2009, 102:487-502. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2008.11.001.
47. Pimperton H., Pellicano E., Jeffery L., Rhodes G. The role of higher level adaptive coding mechanisms in the development of face recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2009, 104:229-238. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.05.009.
48. Rhodes G. Superportraits: Caricatures and recognition 1996, The Psychological Press, Hove, doi: 10.4324/9780203304907.
49. Rhodes G., Brennan S., Carey S. Identification and ratings of caricatures: Implications for mental representations of faces. Cognitive Psychology 1987, 19:473-497. doi: 10.1016/0010-0285(87)90016-8.
50. Rhodes G., Evangelista E., Jeffery L. Orientation-sensitivity of face identity aftereffects. Vision Research 2009, 49:2379-2385. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2009.07.010.
51. Rhodes G., Geddes K., Jeffery L., Dziurawiec S., Clark A. Are average and symmetric faces attractive to infants? Discrimination and looking preferences. Perception 2002, 31:315-321. doi: 10.1068/p3129.
52. Rhodes G., Jeffery L. Adaptive norm-based coding of facial identity. Vision Research 2006, 46:2977-2987. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.03.002.
53. Rhodes G., Jeffery L., Watson T.L., Clifford C.W.G., Nakayama K. Fitting the mind to the world: Face adaptation and attractiveness aftereffects. Psychological Science 2003, 14:558-566. doi: 10.1046/j.0956-7976.2003.psci_1465.x.
54. Robbins R., McKone E., Edwards M. Aftereffects for face attributes with different natural variability: Adapter position effects and neural models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 2007, 33:570-592. doi: 10.1037/0096-1523.33.3.570.
55. Rubenstein A.J., Kalakanis L., Langlois J.H. Infant preferences for attractive faces: A cognitive explanation. Developmental Psychology 1999, 35:848-855. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.35.3.848.
56. Sangrigoli S., Pallier C., Argenti A.M., Ventureyra V.A., de Schonen S. Reversibility of the other-race effect in face recognition during childhood. Psychological Science 2005, 16:440-444.
57. Schweinberger S.R., Zäske R., Walther C., Golle J., Kovács G., Wiese H. Young without plastic surgery: Perceptual adaptation to the age of female and male faces. Vision Research 2010, 50:2570-2576. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.08.017.
58. Short L.A., Hatry A.J., Mondloch C.J. The development of norm-based coding and race-specific face prototypes: An examination of 5- and 8-year-olds' face space. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2011, 108:338-357. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2010.07.007.
59. Skinner A.L., Benton C.P. Anti-expression aftereffects reveal prototype-referenced coding of facial expressions. Psychological Science 2010, 21:1248-1253. doi: 10.1177/0956797610380702.
60. Susilo T., McKone E., Edwards M. Solving the upside-down puzzle: Why do upright and inverted face aftereffects look alike? Journal of Vision 2010, 10:1-16. doi: 10.1167/10.13.1.
61. Susilo T., McKone E., Edwards M. What shape are the neural response functions underlying opponent coding in face space? A psychophysical investigation. Vision Research 2010, 50:300-314. doi: 10.1016/j.visres.2009.11.016.
62. Tsao D.Y., Freiwald W.A. What's so special about the average face? Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2006, 10:391-393. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2006.07.009.
63. Valentine T. A unified account of the effects of distinctiveness, inversion, and race in face recognition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. A, Human Experimental Psychology 1991, 43:161-204.
64. Vida M.D., Mondloch C.J. Children's representations of facial expression and identity: Identity-contingent expression aftereffects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 2009, 104:326-345. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.06.003.
65. Walton G.E., Bower T. Newborns form " prototypes" in less than 1 minute. Psychological Science 1993, 4:203-205. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1993.tb00488.x.
66. Webster M.A., Kaping D., Mizokami Y., Duhamel P. Adaptation to natural face categories. Nature 2004, 428:557-561. doi: 10.1038/nature02420.
67. Webster M.A., MacLin O.H. Figural aftereffects in the perception of faces. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 1999, 6:647-653. doi: 10.3758/BF03212974.
68. Zhao L., Chubb C. The size-tuning of the face-distortion after-effect. Vision Research 2001, 41:2979-2994. doi: 10.1016/S0042-6989(01)00202-4.