Diagnosis, Treatment, Control, and Prevention of Infections Caused by Rhodococcus equi in Foals

Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine

Volumn 25, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 1209-1220

  Giguere S ^a   Cohen, N D ^a   Keith Chaffin, M ^a   Slovis, N M ^b   Hondalus, M K ^c   Hines, S A ^d   Prescott, J F ^e  

^a TEXAS A AND M UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HAGYARD EQUINE MEDICAL INSTITUTE   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

^d WASHINGTON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH   (Canada)

Author keywords

Antimicrobials; Bacterial species; Infectious diseases; Microbiology; Parenchymal disease; Pneumonia; Respiratory tract

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT;

ACTINOMYCETALES INFECTION; ANIMAL; ANIMAL DISEASE; ARTICLE; BIOAVAILABILITY; BLOOD; HALF LIFE TIME; HORSE; HORSE DISEASE; MICROBIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION; MICROBIOLOGY; RHODOCOCCUS EQUI;

ACTINOMYCETALES INFECTIONS; ANIMALS; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BIOLOGICAL AVAILABILITY; HALF-LIFE; HORSE DISEASES; HORSES; MICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TESTS; RHODOCOCCUS EQUI;

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); EQUIDAE; POSIBACTERIA; RHODOCOCCUS EQUI;

EID: 81355123243     PISSN: 08916640     EISSN: 19391676     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.00835.x     Document Type: Article

References (94)

1. Leclere M, Magdesian KG, Kass PH, et al. Comparison of the clinical, microbiological, radiological and haematological features of foals with pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi and other bacteria. Vet J 2011;187:109-112.
2. Lavoie JP, Fiset L, Laverty S. Review of 40 cases of lung abscesses in foals and adult horses. Equine Vet J 1994;26:348-352.
3. Giguère S, Hernandez J, Gaskin JM, et al. Evaluation of WBC concentration, plasma fibrinogen concentration, and an agar gel immunodiffusion test for early identification of foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:775-781.
4. Giguère S, Hernandez J, Gaskin J, et al. Performance of five serological assays for diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2003;10:241-245.
5. Phumoonna T, Muscatello G, Chicken C, et al. Clinical evaluation of a peptide-ELISA based upon N-terminal B-cell epitope of the VapA protein for diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health 2006;53:126-132.
6. Martens RJ, Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, et al. Evaluation of 5 serologic assays to detect Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002;221:825-833.
7. Hillidge CJ. Use of erythromycin-rifampin combination in treatment of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Vet Microbiol 1987;14:337-342.
8. Muller NS, Madigan JE. Methods of implementation of an immunoprophylaxis program for the prevention of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia: results of a 5-year field study. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 1992;38:193-201.
9. Ardans AA, Hietala SK, Spensley MS, et al. Studies of naturally occuring and experimental Rhodococcus equi. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 1986;32:129-144.
10. Pusterla N, Wilson WD, Mapes S, et al. Diagnostic evaluation of real-time PCR in the detection of Rhodococcus equi in faeces and nasopharyngeal swabs from foals with pneumonia. Vet Rec 2007;161:272-275.
11. Sellon DC, Besser TE, Vivrette SL, et al. Comparison of nucleic acid amplification, serology, and microbiologic culture for diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Clin Microbiol 2001;39:1289-1293.
12. Rodriguez-Lazaro D, Lewis DA, Ocampo-Sosa AA, et al. Internally controlled real-time PCR method for quantitative species-specific detection and vapA genotyping of Rhodococcus equi. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006;72:4256-4263.
13. Nakazawa M, Sugimoto C, Isayama Y. Quantitative culture of Rhodococcus equi from the feces of horse. Natl Inst Anim Health Q (Tokyo) 1983;23:67-68.
14. Takai S, Iimori S, Tsubaki S. Quantitative fecal culture for early diagnosis of Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi enteritis in foals. Can J Vet Res 1986;50:479-484.
15. Takai S, Ohkura H, Watanabe Y, et al. Quantitative aspects of fecal Rhodococcus (Corynebacterium) equi in foals. J Clin Microbiol 1986;23:794-796.
16. Hashikura S, Higuchi T, Taharaguchi S, et al. Evaluation of nasotracheal aspiration as a diagnostic tool for Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. Equine Vet J 2000;32:560-564.
17. Giguère S, Lee E, Williams E, et al. Determination of the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance to macrolide antimicrobials or rifampin in Rhodococcus equi isolates and treatment outcome in foals infected with antimicrobial-resistant isolates of R. equi. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2010;237:74-81.
18. Sweeney CR, Sweeney RW, Divers TJ. Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in 48 foals: Response to antimicrobial therapy. Vet Microbiol 1987;14:329-336.
19. Giguère S, Jacks S, Roberts GD, et al. Retrospective comparison of azithromycin, clarithromycin, and erythromycin for the treatment of foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. J Vet Intern Med 2004;18:568-573.
20. Nordmann P, Ronco E. In-vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of Rhodococcus equi. J Antimicrob Chemother 1992;29:383-393.
21. Jacks S, Giguère S, Nguyen A. In vitro susceptibilities of Rhodococcus equi and other common equine pathogens to azithromycin, clarithromycin and 20 other antimicrobials. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003;47:1742-1745.
22. Prescott JF, Nicholson VM. The effects of combinations of selected antibiotics on the growth of Corynebacterium equi. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 1984;7:61-64.
23. Castro LA, Brown MP, Gronwall R, et al. Pharmacokinetics of rifampin given as a single oral dose in foals. Am J Vet Res 1986;47:2584-2586.
24. Lakritz J, Wilson WD, Marsh AE, et al. Effects of prior feeding on pharmacokinetics and estimated bioavailability after oral administration of a single dose of microencapsulated erythromycin base in healthy foals. Am J Vet Res 2000;61:1011-1015.
25. Davis JL, Gardner SY, Jones SL, et al. Pharmacokinetics of azithromycin in foals after i.v. and oral dose and disposition into phagocytes. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2002;25:99-104.
26. Jacks S, Giguère S, Gronwall PR, et al. Pharmacokinetics of azithromycin and concentration in body fluids and bronchoalveolar cells in foals. Am J Vet Res 2001;62:1870-1875.
27. Womble A, Giguère S, Murthy YV, et al. Pulmonary disposition of tilmicosin in foals and in vitro activity against Rhodococcus equi and other common equine bacterial pathogens. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2006;29:561-568.
28. Suarez-Mier G, Giguère S, Lee EA. Pulmonary disposition of erythromycin, azithromycin, and clarithromycin in foals. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2007;30:109-115.
29. Drusano GL. Infection site concentrations: Their therapeutic importance and the macrolide and macrolide-like class of antibiotics. Pharmacotherapy 2005;25:150S-158S.
30. Kiem S, Schentag JJ. Interpretation of antibiotic concentration ratios measured in epithelial lining fluid. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008;52:24-36.
31. Peters J, Block W, Oswald S, et al. Oral absorption of clarithromycin is nearly abolished by chronic comedication of rifampicin in foals. Drug Metab Dispos 2011;39:1543-1649.
32. Venner M, Peters J, Hohensteiger N, et al. Concentration of the macrolide antibiotic tulathromycin in broncho-alveolar cells is influenced by comedication of rifampicin in foals. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2010;381:161-169.
33. Venner M, Rodiger A, Laemmer M, et al. Failure of antimicrobial therapy to accelerate spontaneous healing of subclinical pulmonary abscesses on a farm with endemic infections caused by Rhodococcus equi. Vet J 2011; Sep 14. doi.org/10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.07.004 [Epub ahead of print].
34. Stratton-Phelps M, Wilson WD, Gardner IA. Risk of adverse effects in pneumonic foals treated with erythromycin versus other antibiotics: 143 cases (1986-1996). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000;217:68-73.
35. Gustafsson A, Baverud V, Gunnarsson A, et al. The association of erythromycin ethylsuccinate with acute colitis in horses in Sweden. Equine Vet J 1997;29:314-318.
36. Baverud V, Franklin A, Gunnarsson A, et al. Clostridium difficile associated with acute colitis in mares when their foals are treated with erythromycin and rifampicin for Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Vet J 1998;30:482-488.
37. Scheuch E, Spieker J, Venner M, et al. Quantitative determination of the macrolide antibiotic tulathromycin in plasma and broncho-alveolar cells of foals using tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007;850:464-470.
38. Venner M, Kerth R, Klug E. Evaluation of tulathromycin in the treatment of pulmonary abscesses in foals. Vet J 2007;174:418-421.
39. Carlson K, Kuskie K, Chaffin K, et al. Antimicrobial activity of tulathromycin and 14 other antimicrobials against virulent Rhodococcus equi in vitro. Vet Ther 2010;11:E1-E9.
40. Berghaus LJ, Giguère S, Sturgill TL, et al. Plasma pharmacokinetics, pulmonary distribution, and in vitro activity of gamithromycin in foals. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2011; Mar 28. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.2011.01292.x. [Epub ahead of print]
41. Takai S, Takeda K, Nakano Y, et al. Emergence of rifampin-resistant Rhodococcus equi in an infected foal. J Clin Microbiol 1997;35:1904-1908.
42. Fines M, Pronost S, Maillard K, et al. Characterization of mutations in the rpoB gene associated with rifampin resistance in Rhodococcus equi isolated from foals. J Clin Microbiol 2001;39:2784-2787.
43. Asoh N, Watanabe H, Fines-Guyon M, et al. Emergence of rifampin-resistant Rhodococcus equi with several types of mutations in the rpoB gene among AIDS patients in northern Thailand. J Clin Microbiol 2003;41:2337-2340.
44. Kenney DG, Robbins SC, Prescott JF, et al. Development of reactive arthritis and resistance to erythromycin and rifampin in a foal during treatment for Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Vet J 1994;26:246-248.
45. Womble A, Giguère S, Lee EA. Pharmacokinetics of oral doxycycline and concentrations in body fluids and bronchoalveolar cells of foals. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2007;30:187-193.
46. Hoffman AM, Viel L. A percutaneous transtracheal catheter system for improved oxygenation in foals with respiratory distress. Equine Vet J 1992;24:239-241.
47. Valdes A, Johnson JR. Septic pleuritis and abdominal abscess formation caused by Rhodococcus equi in a foal. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;227:960-963.
48. Reuss SM, Chaffin MK, Cohen ND. Extrapulmonary disorders associated with Rhodococcus equi infection in foals: 150 cases (1987-2007). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2009;235:855-863.
49. Elissalde GS, Renshaw HW, Walberg JA. Corynebacterium equi: An interhost review with emphasis on the foal. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 1980;3:433-445.
50. Ainsworth DM, Eicker SW, Yeagar AE, et al. Associations between physical examination, laboratory, and radiographic findings and outcome and subsequent racing performance of foals with Rhodococcus equi infection: 115 cases (1984-1992). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998;213:510-515.
51. Chaffin MK, Martens RJ. Extrapulmonary disorders associated with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals: Retrospective study of 61 cases (1988-1996). Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 1997;43:79-80.
52. Venner M, Reinhold B, Beyerbach M, et al. Efficacy of azithromycin in preventing pulmonary abscesses in foals. Vet J 2009;179:301-303.
53. Slovis NM, McCracken JL, Mundy G. How to use thoracic ultrasound to screen foals for Rhodococcus equi at affected farms. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 2005;51:274-278.
54. Bernard B, Dugan J, Pierce S, et al. The influence of foal pneumonia on future racing performance. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 1991;37:17-18.
55. Giguère S, Prescott JF. Clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Rhodococcus equi infections in foals. Vet Microbiol 1997;56:313-334.
56. Prescott JF. Rhodococcus equi: An animal and human pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 1991;4:20-34.
57. Martens RJ, Martens JG, Fiske RA, et al. Rhodococcus equi foal pneumonia: Protective effects of immune plasma in experimentally infected foals. Equine Vet J 1989;21:249-255.
58. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Evaluation of equine breeding farm characteristics as risk factors for development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:467-475.
59. Cohen ND, O'Conor MS, Chaffin MK, et al. Farm characteristics and management practices associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;226:404-413.
60. Prescott JF, Machang'u R, Kwiecien J, et al. Prevention of foal mortality due to Rhodococcus equi pneumonia on an endemically affected farm. Can Vet J 1989;30:871-875.
61. Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, Martens RJ. Control and prevention of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. Compend Contin Educ Pract Vet 2000;22:1062-1070.
62. Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, Vandenplas ML, et al. Study of serum amyloid A concentrations as a means of achieving early diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Vet J 2005;37:212-216.
63. Ramirez S, Lester GD, Roberts GR. Diagnostic contribution of thoracic ultrasonography in 17 foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2004;45:172-176.
64. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Evaluation of equine breeding farm management and preventative health practices as risk factors for development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:476-485.
65. Cohen ND, Carter CN, Scott HM, et al. Association of soil concentrations of Rhodococcus equi and incidence of pneumonia attributable to Rhodococcus equi in foals on farms in central Kentucky. Am J Vet Res 2008;69:385-395.
66. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ, et al. Foal-related risk factors associated with development of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia on farms with endemic infection. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;223:1791-1799.
67. Ward MP, Perez AM. Association between soil type and paratuberculosis in cattle herds. Am J Vet Res 2004;65:10-14.
68. Martens RJ, Cohen ND, Chaffin MK, et al. Association of pneumonia in foals caused by Rhodococcus equi with farm soil geochemistry. Am J Vet Res 2002;63:95-98.
69. Muscatello G, Anderson GA, Gilkerson JR, et al. Associations between the ecology of virulent Rhodococcus equi and the epidemiology of R. equi pneumonia on Australian thoroughbred farms. Appl Environ Microbiol 2006;72:6152-6160.
70. Martens RJ, Takai S, Cohen ND, et al. Association of disease with isolation and virulence of Rhodococcus equi from farm soil and foals with pneumonia. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2000;217:220-225.
71. Kuskie KR, Smith JL, Wang N, et al. Effects of location for collection of air samples on a farm and time of day of sample collection on airborne concentrations of virulent Rhodococcus equi at two horse breeding farms. Am J Vet Res 2011;72:73-79.
72. Muscatello G, Gilkerson JR, Browning GF. Effects of selective intensive irrigation on the incidence and prevalence of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia on an endemically affected farm. Aust Equine Vet 2006;25:79-80.
73. Muscatello G, Gerbaud S, Kennedy C, et al. Comparison of concentrations of Rhodococcus equi and virulent R. equi in air of stables and paddocks on horse breeding farms in a temperate climate. Equine Vet J 2006;38:263-265.
74. Malschitzky E, Neves AP, Gregory RM, et al. Reduzir o uso da cocheira a incidencia de infeccoes por Rhodococcus equi em potros. A Hora Veterinaria 2005;24:27-30.
75. Takai S, Ohbushi S, Koike K, et al. Prevalence of virulent Rhodococcus equi in isolates from soil and feces of horses from horse-breeding farms with and without endemic infections. J Clin Microbiol 1991;29:2887-2889.
76. Muscatello G, Gilkerson JR, Browning GF. Detection of virulent Rhodococcus equi in exhaled air samples from naturally infected foals. J Clin Microbiol 2009;47:734-737.
77. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ. Chemoprophylactic effects of azithromycin against Rhodococcus equi-induced pneumonia among foals at equine breeding farms with endemic infections. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2008;232:1035-1047.
78. Harrington JR, Martens RJ, Cohen ND, et al. Antimicrobial activity of gallium against virulent Rhodococcus equi in vitro and in vivo. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2006;29:121-127.
79. Martens RJ, Miller NA, Cohen ND, et al. Chemoprophylactic antimicrobial activity of gallium maltolate against intracellular Rhodococcus equi. J Equine Vet Sci 2007;27:341-345.
80. Martens RJ, Mealey K, Cohen ND, et al. Pharmacokinetics of gallium maltolate after intragastric administration in neonatal foals. Am J Vet Res 2007;68:1041-1044.
81. Martens RJ, Harrington JR, Cohen ND, et al. Gallium therapy: A novel metal-based antimicrobial strategy for potential control of Rhodococcus equi foal pneumonia. Proc Am Assoc Equine Pract 2006;52:219-221.
82. Chaffin MK, Cohen ND, Martens RJ, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of gallium maltolate for chemoprophylaxis against pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi infection in foals. Am J Vet Res 2011;72:945-957.
83. Prescott JF, Nicholson VM, Patterson MC, et al. Use of Rhodococcus equi virulence-associated protein for immunization of foals against R. equi pneumonia. Am J Vet Res 1997;58:356-359.
84. Hooper-McGrevy KE, Wilkie BN, Prescott JF. Virulence-associated protein-specific serum immunoglobulin G-isotype expression in young foals protected against Rhodococcus equi pneumonia by oral immunization with virulent R. equi. Vaccine 2005;23:5760-5767.
85. Hooper-McGrevy KE, Giguère S, Wilkie BN, et al. Evaluation of equine immunoglobulin specific for Rhodococcus equi virulence-associated proteins A and C for use in protecting foals against Rhodococcus equi-induced pneumonia. Am J Vet Res 2001;62:1307-1313.
86. Cohen ND, Smith KE, Ficht TA, et al. Epidemiologic study of results of pulse-field gel electrophoresis of isolates of Rhodococcus equi obtained from horses and horse farms. Am J Vet Res 2003;64:153-161.
87. Chaffin MK, Martins RJ, Martens JG. Therapeutic effects of immune plasma in foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia. Equine Vet J 1991;12(suppl):23-29.
88. Horowitz ML, Cohen ND, Takai S, et al. Application of Sartwell's model (lognormal distribution of incubation periods) to age at onset and age at death of foals with Rhodococcus equi pneumonia as evidence of perinatal infection. J Vet Intern Med 2001;15:171-175.
89. Jacks S, Giguère S, Crawford PC, et al. Experimental infection of neonatal foals with Rhodococcus equi triggers adult-like gamma interferon induction. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007;14:669-677.
90. Womble AY, Giguère S, Lee EA, et al. Pharmacokinetics of clarithromycin and concentrations in body fluids and bronchoalveolar cells of foals. Am J Vet Res 2006;67:1681-1686.
91. Madigan JE, Hietala S, Muller N. Protection against naturally acquired Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals by administration of hyperimmune plasma. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 1991;44:571-578.
92. Higuchi T, Arakawa T, Hashikura S, et al. Effect of prophylactic administration of hyperimmune plasma to prevent Rhodococcus equi infection on foals from endemically affected farms. Zentralbl Veterinarmed [B] 1999;46:641-648.
93. Giguère S, Gaskin JM, Miller C, et al. Evaluation of a commercially available hyperimmune plasma product for prevention of naturally acquired pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi in foals. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002;220:59-63.
94. Hurley JR, Begg AP. Failure of hyperimmune plasma to prevent pneumonia caused by Rhodococcus equi in foals. Aust Vet J 1995;72:418-420.