Coal power impacts, technology, and policy: Connecting the dots

Annual Review of Environment and Resources

Volumn 36, Issue , 2011, Pages 101-138

  Chikkatur, Ananth P ^a   Chaudhary, Ankur ^b   Sagar, Ambuj D ^b  

^a ICF INTERNATIONAL   (United States)

^b INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY DELHI   (India)

Author keywords

cleaner coal technology; climate change mitigation; health impacts; policy

Indexed keywords

CLEANER COAL TECHNOLOGY; CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT; CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION; CLIMATE IMPACTS; CLIMATE POLICY; COAL POWER; DEVELOPED COUNTRIES; ELECTRIC POWER; FURTHER DEVELOPMENT; HEALTH IMPACTS; HUMAN HEALTH; INNOVATION CYCLES; POWER GENERATION TECHNOLOGY; RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT; STRINGENT REGULATIONS; TECHNOLOGICAL EFFORT; TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION;

CLIMATE CHANGE; COAL; DEVELOPING COUNTRIES; ECONOMICS; ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION; HEALTH; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER;

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL EFFECTS;

EID: 80155175031     PISSN: 15435938     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev.environ.020508.142152     Document Type: Article

References (178)

1. Modi V, McDade S, Lallement D, Saghir J. 2005. Energy Services for the Millennium Development Goals.World Bank/UNDP
2. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2010. World Energy Outlook 2010. Paris: IEA
3. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2010. International Energy Outlook 2010.Washington, DC: EIA
4. BP. 2011. BP Energy Outlook 2030. BP, London.
5. Chikkatur AP, Sagar AD. 2007. Cleaner power in India: towards a clean-coal-technology roadmap. Rep. Discuss. Pap. 2007-06, Belfer Cent. Sci. Int. Aff., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA
6. Natl. Res. Counc. (NRC). 2010. Hidden Costs of Energy.Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
7. Freese B. 2003. Coal: A Human History. Cambridge, MA: Perseus
8. Jacobson MZ. 2002. Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science, and Regulation. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press
9. Pope CA. 2000. Invited commentary: particulate matter-mortality exposure-response relations and threshold. Am. J. Epidemiol. 152:407-12
10. EPA. 2009. Integrated science assessment for particulatematter. Rep. EPA/600/R-08/139F,U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
11. EPA. 2008. Integrated science assessment for oxides of nitrogen-health criteria. Rep. EPA/600/R- 08/071F, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
12. EPA. 2008. Integrated science assessment (isa) for sulfur oxides-health criteria (final report). Rep. EPA/600/R-08/047F, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
13. EPA. 2008. Integrated science assessment (isa) for oxides of nitrogen and sulfur ecological criteria (final report). Rep. EPA/600/R-08/082F, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
14. Hill AB. 1965. The environment and disease: association or causation?. Proc. R. Soc. Med. 58:295-300
15. Am. Thorac. Soc. 2000. What constitutes an adverse health effect of air pollution?This official statement of the American thoracic society was adopted by the ATS board of directors, July 1999. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 161:665-73
16. Pope CA, Dockery DW. 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 56:709-42
17. Bell ML, Davis DL. 2001. Reassessment of the lethal London fog of 1952: novel indicators of acute and chronic consequences of acute exposure to air pollution. Environ. Health Perspect. 109:389-94
18. Levy JI, Hammitt JK, Spengler JD. 2000. Estimating the mortality impacts of particulate matter: What can be learned from between-study variability? Environ. Health Perspect. 108:109-17
19. Woodruff TJ, Grillo J, Schoendorf KC. 1997. The relationship between selected causes of postneonatal infant mortality and particulate air pollution in the United States. Environ. Health Perspect. 105:608-12
20. Woodruff TJ, Parker JD, Schoendorf KC. 2006. Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) air pollution and selected causes of postneonatal infant mortality in California. Environ. Health Perspect. 114:786-90
21. Gauderman WJ, Avol E, Gilliland F, Vora H, Thomas D, et al. 2004. The effect of air pollution on lung development from 10 to 18 years of age. N. Engl. J. Med. 351:1057-67
22. Schwartz J, DockeryDW,Neas LM,Wypij D, Ware JH, et al. 1994. Acute effects of summer air pollution on respiratory symptom reporting in children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. CareMed. 150:1234-42
23. Widdicombe J. 2003. Overview of neural pathways in allergy and asthma. Pulm. Pharmacol. Ther. 16:23-30
24. DeBell LJ. 2006. Spatial and seasonal patterns and temporal variability of haze and its constituents in the United States. Rep. IV, Coop. Inst. Res. Atmos. (CIRA), Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins
25. Drevnick PE, Canfield DE, Gorski PR, Shinneman ALC, Engstrom DR, et al. 2007. Deposition and cycling of sulfur controls mercury accumulation in Isle Royale fish. Environ. Sci. Technol. 41:7266-72
26. EPA. 1982. Air quality criteria for particulate matter and sulfur oxides. Rep. EPA/600/8-82/029aF-cF. U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Health Environ. Assess.,Washington, DC
27. Widdicombe J. 2006. Reflexes from the lungs and airways: historical perspective. J. Appl. Physiol. 101:628-34
28. Postlethwait EM, Bidani A. 1994. Mechanisms of pulmonary NO2 absorption. Toxicology 89:217-37
29. Chauhan AJ, Inskip HM, Linaker CH, Smith S, Schreiber J, et al. 2003. Personal exposure to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and the severity of virus-induced asthma in children. Lancet 361:1939-44
30. Schildcrout JS, Sheppard L, Lumley T, Slaughter JC, Koenig JQ, Shapiro GG. 2006. Ambient air pollution and asthma exacerbations in children: an eight-city analysis. Am. J. Epidemiol. 164:505-17
31. Mortimer KM, Neas LM, Dockery DW, Redline S, Tager IB. 2002. The effect of air pollution on inner-city children with asthma. Eur. Respir. J. 19:699-705
32. Galloway J, Aber J, Erisman J, Seitzinger S, Howarth R, et al. 2003. The nitrogen cascade. BioScience 53:341-56
33. Sterner R, Elser J. 2002. Ecological Stoichiometry: The Biology of Elements from Molecules to the Biosphere. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press
34. Fenn M, Poth M, Aber J, Baron J,Bormann B, et al. 1998. Nitrogen excess in North American ecosystems: predisposing factors, ecosystem responses, and management strategies. Ecol. Appl. 8:706-33
35. Driscoll C, Whitall J, Aber E, Boyer M, Castro C, et al. 2003. Nitrogen pollution in the northeastern United States: sources, effects and management options. BioScience 53:357-74
36. Aber J, McDowell W, NadelhofferK,Magill A, Berntson G, et al. 1998. Nitrogen saturation in temperate forest ecosystems: hypotheses revisited. BioScience 48:921-34
37. EPA. 2010. Guidance for implementing the January 2001 methylmercury water quality criterion. Rep. EPA 823-R-10-001, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC
38. EPA. 2006. EPA's roadmap for mercury. Rep. EPA-HQ-OPPT-2005-0013, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
39. Shah P, Strezov V, Prince K, Nelson PF. 2008. Speciation of As, Cr, Se and Hg under coal fired power station conditions. Fuel 87:1859-69
40. Natl. Res. Counc. (NRC). 2000. Toxicologic Effects of Methylmercury. Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Sci.
41. EPA. 1997. Mercury Study Report to Congress. Vol. V: Health Effects of Mercury and Mercury Compounds. Washington, DC: U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
42. EPA. 2005. Regulatory impact analysis of the Clean Air Mercury Rule: final report. Rep. EPA-452/R- 05-003, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
43. EPA. 2001. Water quality criterion for the protection of human health: methylmercury. Rep. EPA-823- R-01-001, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Off. Water, Washington, DC
44. Ottinger RL,Wooley DR, Robinson NA, Hodas DR, Babb SE. 1990. Environmental Costs of Electricity. New York: Oceana
45. Freeman MA. 1999. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values. Washington, DC: Resour. Future
46. Hohmeyer O. 1988. Social Costs of Energy Consumption: External Effects of Electricity Generation in the Federal Republic of Germany. New York: Springer
47. ORNL/RFF. 1992-1998. External Costs and Benefits of Fuel Cycles: Reports 1-8, Oak Ridge Natl. Lab./Resour. Future. Washington, DC: McGraw-Hill/Utility Data Inst.
48. Eur. Comm. 2003. External Costs: Research Results on Socio-Environmental Damages Due to Electricity and Transport, ed. Eur. Comm. Luxembourg: Off. Off. Publ. Eur. Comm.
49. Muller NZ, Mendelsohn RO. 2007. Measuring the damages from air pollution in the U.S. J. Environ. Econ. Manag. 54:1-14
50. World Bank. 1997. Clear Water, Blue Skies: China's Environment in the New Century. Washington, DC: World Bank
51. World Bank. 2002. Improving Air Quality in Metropolitan Mexico City: An Economic Valuation. Mexico City: World Bank
52. ExternE. 1998. Externalities of Energy. Luxembourg/Belgium: Eur.Comm. Dir.-Gen. XII, Sci., Res.Dev
53. SundqvistT. 2004. What causes the disparity of electricity externality estimates? Energy Policy 32:1753-66
54. Ho MS, Nielsen CP, eds. 2007. Clearing the Air: The Health and Economic Damages of Air Pollution in China. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
55. Byun DW, Schere LK. 2006. Review of the governing equations, computational algorithms, and other components of the models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) modeling system. Appl. Mech. Rev. 59:51-77
56. MullerNZ, Mendelsohn RO. 2006. The Air Pollution Emission and Policy AnalysisModel (APEEP): Technical Appendix. New Haven, CT: Yale Univ.
57. Natl. Res. Counc. (NRC). 1994. Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants. Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment.Washington, DC: NRC
58. Daniels MJ, Dominici F, Samet JM, Zeger SL. 2000. Estimating particulate matter-mortality doseresponse curves and threshold levels: an analysis of daily time-series for the 20 largest US cities. Am. J. Epidemiol. 152:397-406
59. Mead RW, Brajer V. 2006. Valuing the adult health effects of air pollution in Chinese cities. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1076:882-92
60. Xu XP,Dockery DW,ChristianiDC, Li BL,Huang HY. 1995. Association of air-pollution with hospital outpatient visits in Beijing. Arch. Environ. Health 50:214-20
61. Chen C, Chen B, Wang B, Huang C, Zhao J, et al. 2007. Low-carbon energy policy and ambient air pollution in Shanghai, China: a health-based economic assessment. Sci. Total Environ. 373:13-21
62. Vichit-Vadakan N, Vajanapoom N, Ostro B. 2008. The public health and air pollution in Asia (PAPA) project: estimating the mortality effects of particulate matter in Bangkok, Thailand. Environ. Health Perspect. 116:1179-82
63. Viscusi WK, Aldy JE. 2003. The value of a statistical life: a critical review of market estimates throughout the world. J. Risk Uncertain. 27:5-76
64. Freeman AM. 2003. The Measurement of Environmental and Resource Values: Theory and Methods. Washington, DC: Resourc. Future Press
65. World Bank. 2003. Economic Valuation of the Health Benefits of Reduction in Air Pollution. Washington, DC:World Bank ESMAP
66. Alberini A, Krupnick A. 2000. Cost-of-illness and willingness-to-pay estimates of the benefits of improved air quality: evidence from Taiwan. Land Econ. 76:37-53
67. Levy JI, Baxter LK, Schwartz J. 2009. Uncertainty and variability in health-related damages from coalfired power plants in the United States. Risk Anal. 29:1000-14
68. EPA. 2010. Regulatory impact analysis for the proposed Federal Transport Rule. EPA-HQ-OAR-2009- 0491, Off. Air Radiat., U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Washington, DC
69. Wang H, Mullahy J. 2006. Willingness to pay for reducing fatal risk by improving air quality: a contingent valuation study in Chongqing, China. Sci. Total Environ. 367:50-57
70. World Bank Rep. 1997. Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR). URBAIR- Metro Manila. Washington, DC: IBRD/World Bank
71. KanH,Chen B. 2004. Particulate air pollution in urban areas of Shanghai, China: health-based economic assessment. Sci. Total Environ. 322:71-79
72. O'Connor D, Zhai F, Aunan K, Berntsen T, Vennemo H. 2003. Agricultural and human health impacts of climate policy in China: A general equilibrium analysis with special reference to Guangdong. OECD Dev. Cent. Work. Pap.
73. Hirschberg S, Heck T, Gantner U, Lu YQ, Spadaro JV, et al. 2003. Environmental impact and external cost assessment. In Integrated Assessment of Sustainable Energy Systems in China, ed. B Eliasson, YY Lee, pp. 445-86. Dordrecht: Kluwer Acad.
74. Chestnut LG, Ostro BD, Vichit-Vadakan N. 1997. Transferability of air pollution control health benefits estimates from the United States to developing countries: evidence from the Bangkok study. Am. J. Agric. Econ. 79:1630-35
75. Hammitt J, Zhou Y. 2006. The economic value of air-pollution-related health risks in China: a contingent valuation study. Environ. Resour. Econ. 33:399-423
76. Kumar S, Rao DN. 2001. Valuing the beneficts of air pollution abatement using a health production function-a case study of Panipat Thermal Power Station, India. Environ. Resour. Econ. 20:91-102
77. KanHD, Chen BH, Chen CH, Fu QY, ChenM. 2004. An evaluation of public health impact of ambient air pollution under various energy scenarios in Shanghai, China. Atmos. Environ. 38:95-102
78. ZhangMS, Song Y, Cai XH. 2007. A health-based assessment of particulate air pollution in urban areas of Beijing in 2000-2004. Sci. Total Environ. 376:100-8
79. KrewittW. 2002. External costs of energy-Do the answers match the questions? Looking back at 10 years of ExternE. Energy Policy 30:839-48
80. Epstein PR, Buonocore JJ, Eckerle K, Hendryx M, Stout BM III, et al. 2011. Full cost accounting for the life cycle of coal. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1219:73-98
81. Schwartz J, Coull B, Laden F, Ryan L. 2007. The effect of dose and timing of dose on the association between airborne particles and survival. Environ. Health Perspect. 116:64-69
82. Pope CA 3rd, Dockery DW. 2006. Health effects of fine particulate air pollution: lines that connect. J. Air Waste Manag. Assoc. 56:709-42
83. Grahame TJ, Schlesinger RB. 2007. Health effects of airborne particulate matter: Do we know enough to consider regulating specific particle types or sources? Inhal. Toxicol. 19:457-81
84. ExternE-Pol. 2005. Externalities of Energy: Extension of accounting framework and Policy Applications, ExternE. Luxembourg/Belgium: Eur. Comm. Dir.-Gen. XII, Sci., Res. Dev 85. Deleted in proof
85. Markandya A,Wilkinson P. 2007. Electricity generation and health. Lancet 370:979-90
86. Hirschberg S, Heck T, Gantner U, Lu Y, Spadaro JV, et al. 2004. Health and environmental impacts of China's current and future electricity supply, with associated external costs. Int. J. Glob. Energy 22:155-79
87. Natl. Res. Counc. (NRC). 2004. Air Quality Management in the United States. Washington, DC: Natl. Acad. Press
88. Ackerman F, Biewald B, WhiteD,WoolfT,MoomawW.1999. Grandfathering and coal plant emissions: the cost of cleaning up the Clean Air Act. Energy Policy 27:929-40
89. EPA. 1997. The Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act, 1970 to 1990. Washington, DC: U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency
90. EPA. 2008. National air quality-status and trends through 2007. Rep. EPA-454/R-08-006, U.S. Environ. Prot. Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC
91. Chay K, Greenstone M. 2003. Air Quality, Infant Mortality, and the Clean Air Act of 1970. Cambridge, MA: MIT, Cent. Energy Environ. Policy Res.
92. Deschenes O, Greenstone M, Shapiro J. 2011. Defending against environmental insults: drugs, emergencies, mortality and the NOx budget program emissions market. Work. Pap Dept. Econ., MIT
93. IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. S Solomon, D Qin, M Manning, Z Chen, M Marquis, et al. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 851 pp.
94. IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ed. Core Writ. Team, RK Pachauri, A Reisinger, Intergov. Panel Clim. Change, Geneva, Switz. 104 pp.
95. IPCC. 2001. Summary for policymakers. In Climate Change 2001. Synthesis Report, ed. RT Watson, Core Writ. Team. Intergov. Panel Clim. Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
96. IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, ed. ML Parry, OF Canziani, JP Palutikof, PJ van der Linden, CE Hanson, pp. 7-22. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. 851 pp.
97. UNFramew.Conv. Clim.Change. 2010. Cancun Decision: Decision 1/CP.16.
98. Deleted in proof
99. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2008. World Energy Outlook. IEA
100. Greenstone M, Looney A. 2011. A Strategy for America's Energy Future: Illuminating Energy's Full Costs. Washington, DC: Brookings Inst.
101. Natl. Energy Technol. Lab. (NETL). 2007. Cost and Performance Baseline for Fossil Energy Plants. Vol. 1: Bituminous Coal and Natural Gas to Electricity. Pittsburgh, PA: Natl. Energy Technol. Lab., Off. Fossil Energy, U.S. Dep. Energy
102. MIT. 2007. The Future of Coal: Options for a Carbon-Constrained World. Cambridge, MA: MIT.
103. Zhao L, Xiao Y, Gallagher KS, Wang B, Xu X. 2008. Technical, environment, and economic assessment of deploying advanced coal power technologies in the Chinese context. Energy Policy 36:2709-18
104. Zhao L, Gallagher KS. 2007. Research, development, demonstration, and early deployment policies for advanced-coal technology in China. Energy Policy 35:6467-77
105. New Energy Ind. Technol. Dev. Organ. (NEDO). 2006. Clean Coal Technologies in Japan. Kanagawa, Jpn: NEDO/JCOAL
106. NemetGF,KammenDM.2007. U.S. energy research and development: declining investment, increasing need, and the feasibility of expansion. Energy Policy 35:746-55
107. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2005. Clean coal technologies.
108. IPCC. 2005. IPCC Special Report Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage: Technical Summary, ed. E Rubin, L Meyer, H de Coninck, IE Gizouli. Intergov. Panel Clim. Change.
109. PowerClean. 2004. Fossil Fuel Power Generation: State-Of-The-Art. Rep. PowerClean R, D&D Themat. Netw.
110. Peltier R. 2010. Plant efficiency: Begin with the right definitions. Power Mag. 154(2):46
111. Booras G, Holt N. 2004. Pulverized coal and IGCC plant cost and performance estimates. Presented at Gasif. Technol. Conf., Washington, DC
112. DTI. 1999. Supercritical steam cycles for power generation applications, Rep. TSR009, ed. UK Dep. Trade Ind., London
113. Lako P. 2004. Coal-fired power technologies: coal-fired power options on the brink of climate policies. Rep. ECN-C-04-076, ECN Beleidsstudies, ECN Policy Stud., Petten, The Netherlands
114. Khan SR, Wayland RJ, Schmidt LJ. 2005. Environmental impact comparisons: IGCC versus PC plants. Presented at Annu. Int. Pittsburgh Coal Conf., 22nd, Pittsburgh, PA
115. DTI. 2000. Fluidised bed combustion systems for power generation and other industrial applications, Rep.TSR011, ed. UK Dep. Trade Ind., London
116. Kavidass S, Anderson GL, Norton J. 2000. Why build a circulating fluidized bed boiler to generate steam and electric power. Presented at POWER-GEN Asia 2000, Bangkok, Thail.
117. Giglio B. 2009. World's largest circulating fluidized bed boiler begins commercial operation. Coal Power, Dec. 10
118. Hotta A, Nuortimo K, Eriksson T, Palonen J, Kokki S. 2008. CFB technology provides solutions to combat climate change. Presented at VGB - KELI 2008 Conf., Hamburg, Ger.
119. Marion JL, Bozzuto CR, Nsakala NY, Liljedahl GN, Andrus HE, Chamberland RP. 2003. Greenhouse gas emissions control by oxygen firing in circulating fluidized bed boilers: phase 1. A preliminary systems evaluation. Rep. PPL-03-CT-09, Alstom Power Inc./US DOE NETL, Pittsburgh, PA
120. Farzan H, Vecci SJ, Châtel-Pélage F, Pranda P, Bose AC. 2005. Pilot-scale evaluation of coal combustion in an oxygen-enriched recycled flue gas. Presented at Int. Pittsburgh Coal Conf., 22nd, Pittsburgh, PA
121. Normann F, Andersson K, Leckner B, Johnsson F. 2009. Emission control of nitrogen oxides in the oxy-fuel process. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 35:385-97
122. 2 Quality other Relev. Issues, Cottbus, Ger.
123. 2 capture from advanced supercritical PF and NGCC power plant. Presented at Int. Conf. Greenh. Gas Control Technol., 7th, (GHGT-7), Vancouver, Can.
124. Gupta M, Zanganeh KE, Tan Y, Pearson B. 2005. Oxy-fuel combustion with and without carbon capture: a techno-economic assessment and future prospects. Presented at Annu. Int. Pittsburgh Coal Conf., 22nd, Pittsburgh, PA
125. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2007. Fossil Fuel-Fired Power Generation: Case Studies of Recently Constructed Coal- and Gas-Fired Power Plants. Paris: IEA
126. Kashiwagi T, Ono H, Watari R, Sekine I. 2004. The new direction of Japanese energy policy and the role of gasification. Presented at 2004 Gasif. Technol. Conf., Washington, DC
127. Nexant. 2003. Feasibility Study of a Coal-Based IGCC Power Plant in India. Topical Report for Phase A: Comparison of Various IGCC and Other Advanced Technologies. Nexant Corp. San Franciso, CA (Submitted to USAID/India)
128. Bonk D. 2005. Coal gasification as alternative fuel for glass industry - gasification primer. U.S. Dep. Energy, Natl. Energy Technol. Lab. Presented at Owens Corning Corp. Headquarters, July 27
129. Qureshi N. 2001. Technology scan on IGCC. Rep. 0000-999-POM-W-002 (D1), Natl. Thermal Power Corp. (NTPC), New Delhi, India
130. DTI. 1998. Gasification of solid and liquid fuels for power generation. Rep. TSR008, UK Dep. Trade Ind., London
131. CETC. 2005. Canada's Clean Coal Technology Roadmap (CCTRM). Canmet Energy Technol. Cent., Ottawa, ON.
132. DTI. 2004. Review of the feasibility of underground coal gasification in the UK. Rep. DTI/Pub URN 04/1643, UK Dep. Trade Ind., London
133. Friedmann SJ. 2005. Underground Coal Gasificiation in the USA and Abroad, Congr. Hear. Clim. Change. Senate Foreign Relat. Comm., Nov. 14th
134. Zecevic S, Patton EM, Parhami P. 2004. Carbon-air fuel cell without a reforming process. Carbon 42:1983-93
135. Zecevic S, Patton EM, Parhami P. 2005. Direct electrochemical power generation from carbon in fuel cells with molten hydroxide electrolyte. Chem. Eng. Commun. 192:1655-70
136. Cooper JF. 2004. Direct conversion of coal and coal-derived carbon in fuel cells. Int. Conf. Fuel Cell Sci., Eng. Technol., June 14-19. Rochester, NY: Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. (ASME)
137. Cao DX, Sun Y, Wang GL. 2007. Direct carbon fuel cell: fundamentals and recent developments. J. Power Source 167:250-57
138. Chikkatur AP. 2008. A Resource and Technology Assessment of Coal Utilization in India. Arlington, VA: Pew Cent. Glob. Clim. Change
139. 2 emissions. Washington, DC: Natl. Coal Counc.
140. ICF Int. 2010. Investment Decision for Baseload Power Plants. Natl. Energy Technol. Lab., Off. Fossil Energy, U.S. Dep. Energy, Pittsburgh, PA
141. Tzimas E, Mercier A, Cormos C-C, Peteves SD. 2007. Trade-off in emissions of acid gas pollutants and of carbon dioxide in fossil fuel power plants with carbon capture. Energy Policy 35:3991-98
142. Senior W, Bradshaw J, Chikkatur A, Wright M. 2011. Planning saline reservoir storage developments-the importance of getting started early. Presented at Int. Conf. Greenh. Gas Control Technol., 10th, (GHGT10), Amsterdam
143. GlobalCCSInst./ICF Int. 2010. Defining CCS Ready:AnApproach to An International Definition.Canberra, Aust.: Global CCS Inst.
144. Chikkatur A, Sagar A. 2009. Rethinking India's coal-power technology trajectory. Econ. Polit. Wkly. 44:53-58
145. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2010. RD&D Budget. In IEA Energy Technology R&D Statistics (database). ed. IEA, Paris
146. Stine D. 2009. The Manhattan Project, the Apollo Program, and Federal Energy Technology R&D Programs: A Comparative Analysis. Specialist in Science and Technology Policy, Congressional Research Service 7-5700, 30th June
147. Am. Energy Innov. Council. 2010. A Business Plan for America's Energy Future. . bipartisanpolicy.org/sites/default/files/AEIC-REPORT-Final.pdf
148. President's Counc. Advis. Sci. Technol. (PCAST). 2010. Report to the President on accelerating the pace of change in energy technologies through an integrated federal energy policy. Exec. Off. President. Washington, DC.
149. Yang CJ, Oppenheimer M. 2007. A "Manhattan Project" for climate change? Clim. Change 80:199-204
150. Stern N. 2007. The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge Univ. Press
151. Chen W, Xu R. 2010. Clean coal technology development in China. Energy Policy 38:2123-30
152. Clean Coal Technol. Inc. (CCTI). 2011. Technology.
153. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2008. Clean coal technologies: accelerating commercial and policy drivers for deployment. IEA, Paris.
154. Philibert C. 2003. Technology innovation, development and diffusion. OECD/Int. Energy Agency, Inf. Pap., COM/ENV/EPOC/IEA/SLT(2003)4, IEA, Paris
155. Sandén BA, Azar C. 2005. Near-term technology policies for long-term climate targets-economy wide versus technology specific approaches. Energy Policy 33:1557-76
156. Natl. Energy Technol. Lab. (NETL). 2011. Tracking New Coal-Fired Plants. NETL, Off. Strateg. Anal. Plan.
157. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2011. Technology Development Prospects for the Indian Power Sector. 2011/04. IEA, Paris.
158. Synapse Energy Econ. 2008. Don't Get Burned: The Risks of Investing in New Coal-Fired Generating Facilities. Rep. Synapse Energy Econ., Cambridge, MA
159. Sekar RC, Parsons JE, Herzog HJ, Jacoby HD. 2007. Future carbon regulations and current investments in alternative coal-fired power plant technologies. Energy Policy 35:1064-74
160. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2006. Energy Policies of IEA Countries. Paris: IEA
161. Linares P, Pérez-Arriaga I. 2009. Pomoting investment in low-carbon technologies. Eur. Rev. Energy Mark. 3(2):1-22
162. Hamilton MR, Herzog HJ, Parsons JE. 2009. Cost and U.S. public policy for new coal power plants with carbon capture and sequestration. Energy Procedia 1:4487-94
163. Nils Markusson, Kern F, Watson J. 2010. Assessing CCS viability-a socio-technical framework. Energy Procedia GHGT-10
164. Patiño-Echeverri D, Fischbeck P, Kriegler E. 2009. Economic and environmental costs of regulatory uncertainty for coal-fired power plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 43:578-84
165. Wang H, Nakata T. 2009. Analysis of the market penetration of clean coal technologies and its impacts in China's electricity sector. Energy Policy 37:338-51
166. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2006. Energy Technology Perspectives Scenarios and Strategies to 2050: In Support of the G8 Plan of Action. Paris: OECD/IEA
167. Ockwell DG, Watson J, MacKerron G, Pal P, Yamin F. 2008. Key policy considerations for facilitating low carbon technology transfer to developing countries. Energy Policy 36:4104-15
168. Int. Energy Agency (IEA). 2005. International Energy Technology Collaboration and Climate Change Mitigation-Case Study 4: Clean Coal Technologies. COM/ENV/EPOC/IEA/SLT(2005)4. Paris: IEA
169. Natl. Energy Technol. Lab. (NETL). 2004. World Gasification Database. Natl. Energy Technol. Lab., Off. Fossil Energy, U.S. Dep. Energy, Pittsburgh, PA
170. Palkes M, Waryasz RE, Liljedahl GN. 2004. Economics and feasibility of rankine cycle improvements for coal fired power plants. Alstom Power Inc./NETL, Rep. PPL-04-CT-03,Natl. Energy Technol. Lab., Off. Fossil Energy, U.S. Dep. Energy, Pittsburgh, PA
171. Natl. Energy Technol. Lab. (NETL). 2008. Pulverized coal oxycombustion power plants. Pittsburgh PA: NET Lab., Off. Fossil Energy, U.S. Dep. Energy
172. WorldBank. 2010. World Development Indicators 2010.Washington,DC:Int. BankReconstr. Dev./World Bank
173. United Nations Dev. Program. 2010. Human Development Report 2010. UN Dev. Program., New York
174. FutureGen. 2011. FutureGen Alliance.
175. ARPA-e. 2011. Innovative Materials & Processes for Advanced Carbon Capture Technologies (IMPACCT). Adv. Res. Proj. Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), U.S. Dep. Energy, Washington, DC.
176. Eur. Comm. 2011. EU Support for CCS. Res. Innov., Eur. Comm.
177. Eur. Comm. 2011. Research Fund for Coal and Steel. Community Res. Dev. Inf. Serv. Sci., Res. Dev. (CORDIS), Eur. Comm.
178. Platts. 2006. World Electric Power Plants Database, Dec. http://www.platts.com/Products/worldelectricpowerplantsdatabase/Overview