Low-cost options for reducing consumer health risks from farm to fork where crops are irrigated with polluted water in West Africa

IWMI Research Report

Volumn 2011, Issue , 2011, Pages 1-37

  Amoah, Philip ^a   Keraita, Bernard ^a   Akple, Maxwell ^a   Drechsel, Pay ^a   Abaidoo, Robert C ^a   Konradsen, Flemming ^a  

^a INTERNATIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE   (Sri Lanka)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); BRASSICA OLERACEA VAR. CAPITATA; LACTUCA; VERMES;

EID: 80054864974     PISSN: 10260862     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5337/2011.201     Document Type: Article

References (67)

1. Abaidoo, R.C.; Bakang, J.A.; Drechsel, P.; Keraita, B.; Kinane, M.; Beernaerts, I. 2010. Evaluation of non-treatment options for maximizing public health benefits of WHO guidelines governing the use of wastewater in urban vegetable production in Ghana. Final Technical Report on World Health Organization (WHO)-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)-International Development Research Centre (IDRC) Project 2007-2009. KNUST-IWMI-FAO. Submitted to FAO and IDRC (unpublished project report).
2. Akple, M.S.K. 2009. Assessment of effectiveness of non-treatment interventions in reducing health risks associated with consumption of wastewater-Irrigated cabbage. A thesis submitted to the Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Environmental Science). Faculty of Biosciences, College of Science. January, 2009.
3. Amoah, P.; Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.C. 2005. Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: Sources of pathogen contamination and health risk elimination. Irrigation and Drainage 54: 49-61 (special issue).
4. Amoah, P.; Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.C.; Henseler, M. 2007a. Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: Microbiological contamination in farms and markets and associated consumer risk groups. Journal of Water and Health 5(3): 455-66.
5. Amoah, P.; Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.; Klutse, A. 2007b. Effectiveness of common and improved sanitary washing methods in West Africa for the reduction of coli bacteria and helminth eggs on vegetables. Tropical Medicine & International Health 12(2): 40-50 (supp.).
6. Amoah, P.; Drechsel, P.; Schuetz, T.; Kranjac-Berisavjevic, G.; Manning-Thomas, N. 2009. From world cafés to road shows: Using a mix of knowledge sharing approaches to improve wastewater use in urban agriculture. Knowledge Management for Development Journal 5(3): 246-262 (December 2009).
7. APHA (American Public Health Association)-AWWA (American Water Works Association)-WEF (Water Environment Federation). 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 20th edition. Washington, DC, USA: American Public Health Association.
8. Bastos, R.K.X.; Mara, D.D. 1995. The bacterial quality of salad crops drip and furrow irrigated with waste stabilization pond effluent: An evaluation of WHO guidelines. Water Science and Technology 12: 425-430.
9. Bellamy, W.D.; Hendricks, D.W.; Logsdon, G.S. 1985. Slow sand filtration: Influences of selected process variables. Journal of the American Water Works Association 77(12): 62-66.
10. Beuchat, L.R. 1998. Surface decontamination of fruits and vegetables eaten raw: A review. Report No. WHO/FSF/ FOS/98.2. Geneva: World Health Organization.
11. Blumenthal, U.J.; Peasey, A.; Ruiz-Palacios, G.; Mara, D.D. 2000. Guidelines for wastewater reuse in agriculture and aquaculture: Recommended revisions based on new research evidence. WELL study, Task No. 68 Part 1. Available at www.lboro.ac.uk/well/about-well/About-well.htm
12. Cofie, O.O., Keraita, B., Drechsel P. 2010. Options for simple on-farm water treatment in developing countries. Information kit for the third edition of the WHO guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater in agriculture and aquaculture. Vol. 2. Geneva: WHO-FAO-IDRC-IWMI. Available at www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/human_waste/en/index.html
13. CTA (Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation). 2005. Feeding the towns: A weighty dilemma. SPORE 117: 4-5. Wageningen: Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU.
14. Donkor, E.S.; Lanyo, R.; Kayang, B.B.; Quaye, J.; Edoh, D.A. 2010. Internalisation of microbes in vegetables: microbial load of Ghanian vegetables and the relationship with different water sources of irrigation. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 13: 857-861.
15. Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.C.; Amoah, P.; Cofie, O.O. 2000. Increasing use of poultry manure in and around Kumasi, Ghana: Is farmers' race consumers' fate? Urban Agricultural Magazine 2: 25-27.
16. Drechsel, P.; Graefe, S.; Sonou, M.; Cofie, O. 2006. Informal irrigation in urban West Africa: An overview. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. (IWMI Research Report 102). Available at www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/IWMI_Research_Reports/PDF/pub102/RR102.pdf
17. El Hamouri, B.; Handouf, A.; Mekrane, M.; Touzani, M.; Khana, A.; Khallayoune, K.; Benchokroun, T. 1996. Use of wastewater for crop production under arid and saline conditions: Yield and hygienic quality of crop and soil contaminations. Water Science and Technology 33(10-11): 327-334.
18. EPHC (Environment Protection and Heritage Council)-NRMMC (Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council)- AHMC (Australian Health Ministers' Conference). 2006. Australian guidelines for water recycling: Managing health and environmental risks (Phase 1). Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, Environment Protection and Heritage Council and Australian Health Ministers' Conference. Available at www.ephc.gov.au
19. Ensink, J.H.J.; Mahamood, T.; Dalsagaard, A. 2007. Wastewater irrigated vegetables: Market handling verses irrigation water quality. Tropical Medicine and International Health 12: 2-7 (Dec. 12).
20. Erlom, F.J. 2002. Use of wastewater and its effect on vegetables in the Tamale Municipality. Dissertation for BSc degree, University for Development Studies (UDS). Tamale, Ghana.
21. Fattal, B.; Lampert, Y.; Shuval, H. 2002. A fresh look at microbial guidelines for wastewater irrigation in agriculture: A risk-assessment and cost effectiveness approach. In Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture: Confronting the livelihood and environmental realities, ed. Scott, C.A.; Faruqui, N.I.; Raschid-Sally, L., 59-68. Oxfordshire, UK: Cabi Publishing.
22. Hope, L.; Keraita, B.; Akple, M.S.K. 2008. Washing of vegetables grown in urban farms in irrigation water in Kumasi, Ghana. Urban Agriculture Magazine 20: 29-30.
23. Hope, L.; Cofie, O.; Keraita, B.; Drechsel, P. 2009. Gender and urban agriculture: The case of Accra, Ghana. In: Women feeding cities - Mainstreaming gender in urban agriculture and food security (chap. 4), ed. Hovorka, A.; de Zeeuw, H.; Njenga, M., 65-78. Warwickshire: Practical Action.
24. ICMSF (International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods). 1995. Sampling for microbiological analysis: Principles and specific applications. In Micro-organisms in food (chap. 2), The International Commission on Microbiological Specifications for Foods. UK: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
25. IWMI (International Water Management Institute). 2007. Improving food safety in Africa where vegetables are irrigated with polluted water. Awareness and training video for staff of street restaurants. CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food (CPWF), DVD. Available at http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-6891955003003280662&hl=en
26. IWMI. 2008. Good farming practices to reduce vegetable contamination. Awareness and training video for wastewater farmers. CPWF, DVD. Available at http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3530336707586348166&hl=en
27. Karg, H.; Drechsel, P.; Amoah, P.; Jeitler, R. 2010. Facilitating the adoption of food safety interventions in the street food sector and on farm. In Wastewater irrigation and health: Assessing and mitigation risks in low-income countries, ed. Drechsel, P.; Scott, C.A.; Raschid-Sally, L.; Redwood, M.; Bahri, A., 319-335. UK: Earthscan- IDRC-IWMI.
28. Karim, M.R.; Manshadi, F.D.; Karpiscak, M.M.; Gerba, C.P. 2004. The persistence and removal of enteric pathogens in constructed wetlands. Water Research 38: 1831-1837.
29. Keraita, B.; Drechsel, P.; Amoah, P. 2003. Influence of urban wastewater on stream water quality and agriculture in and around Kumasi, Ghana. Environment & Urbanization 15(2): 171-178.
30. Keraita, B.; Konradsen, F.; Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.C. 2007a. Effect of low-cost irrigation methods on microbial contamination of lettuce. Tropical Medicine & International Health 12(2): 15-22 (suppl.).
31. Keraita, B.; Konradsen, F.; Drechsel, P.; Abaidoo, R.C. 2007b. Reducing microbial contamination on wastewaterirrigated lettuce by cessation of irrigation before harvesting. Tropical Medicine & International Health 12(2): 8-14 (suppl.).
32. Keraita, B.; Drechsel, P.; Konradsen, F. 2008a. Using on-farm sedimentation ponds to improve microbial quality of irrigation water in urban vegetable farming in Ghana. Water Science & Technology 57(4): 519-525.
33. Keraita, B.; Drechsel, P.; Konradsen, F.; Vreugdenhil, R.C. 2008b. Potential of simple filters to improve microbial quality of irrigation water used in urban vegetable farming in Ghana. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A 43(7): 749-755.
34. Keraita, B.; Konradsen, F.; Drechsel, P. 2010. Farm-based measures for reducing microbiological health risks for consumers from informal wastewater-irrigated agriculture. In Wastewater irrigation and health: Assessing and mitigation risks in low-income countries, ed. Drechsel, P.; Scott, C.A.; Raschid-Sally, L.; Redwood, M.; Bahri, A., 189-207. UK: Earthscan-IDRC-IWMI.
35. Klutse, A.; Tandja, C.; Sow, J.A. 2005. Circuit and practices in washing gardening products from production to consumption. Report on West Africa prepared by CREPA for the CPWF project 38. Ouagadougou (Duplicated).
36. Logan, A.J.; Stevik, T.K.; Siegrist, R.L.; Rønn, R.N. 2001. Transport and fate of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in intermittent sand filters. Water Research 35(18): 4359-4369.
37. Mara, D.D. 2004. Domestic wastewater treatment in developing countries. London: Earthscan Publications.
38. Mara, D.; Hamilton, A.; Sleigh, A.; Karavarsamis, N. 2010. Updating the 2006 WHO guidelines. More appropriate tolerable additional burden of disease. Improved determination of annual risks. Norovirus and Ascaris infection risks. Extended health-protection control measures: Treatment and non-treatment options. Information kit for the third edition of the WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater in Agriculture and Aquaculture. Vol. 2. Geneva: WHO-FAO-IDRC-IWMI. Available at www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wastewater/human_waste/en/index.html
39. Maxwell, D.; Levin, C.; Armar-Klemesu, M.; Ruel, M.; Morris, S.; Ahiadeke, C. 2000. Urban livelihoods and food and nutrition security in Greater Accra, Ghana. IFPRI Research Report 112. IFPRI, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, WHO. Washington: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 172p.
40. Morel, A.; Diener, S. 2006. Greywater management in low and medium income countries: A review of different treatment systems for households or neighborhoods. Dubendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG).
41. Muhammad, N.; Ellis, K.; Smith, M.D. 1996. Optimization of slow sand filtration. In Reaching the unreached: Challenges for the 21st century, Proceedings of the 22nd WEDC Conference, September 9-13, New Delhi, India, 283-285, ed. Pickford, J. Loughborough: Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC).
42. Murray, A.; Drechsel, P. Forthcoming. Positive deviance in the sanitation sector in Ghana: Why do some wastewater treatment facilities work when the majority fail? Waterlines 30 (In press).
43. Obuobie, E.; Keraita, B.; Danso, G.; Amoah, P.; Cofie, O.O.; Raschid-Sally, L.; Drechsel, P. 2006. Irrigated urban vegetable production in Ghana: Characteristics, benefits and risks, IWMI-RUAF-IDRC-CPWF, Accra, 150p, Available at www.cityfarmer.org/GhanaIrrigateVegis.html
44. Oron, G.; Demalach, Y.; Hoffman, Z.; Ciboratu, R. 1991. Sub-surface micro-irrigation with effluent. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, ASCE 117(1): 25-36.
45. Oron, G.; Geomans, M.; Manor, Y.; Feyen, J. 1995. Poliovirus distribution in the soil-plant system under reuse of secondary wastewater. Water Research 29: 1069-1078.
46. Owusu, I. 2009. Evaluation of non-treatment interventions for reducing health risks with wastewater irrigated spring onions. A thesis submitted to the Department of Theoretical and Applied Biology, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science (Environmental Science). Faculty of Biosciences, College of Science. January, 2009.
47. Parish, M.E.; Beuchat, L.R.; Suslow, T.V.; Harris, L.J.; Garrett, E.H.; Farber, J.N.; Busta, F.F. 2003. Methods to reduce/eliminate pathogens from fresh and fresh-cut produce. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 2: 161-173, (Supplement, 2003).
48. Raschid-Sally, L.; Jayakody, P. 2008. Drivers and characteristics of wastewater agriculture in developing countries: Results from a global assessment. (IWMI Research Report 127). Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. 29p.
49. Reymond, P.; Cofie, O.; Raschid, L.; Koné, D. 2009. Design considerations and constraints in applying on-farm wastewater treatment for urban agriculture. Paper presented at the 4th SWITCH Scientific Meeting. Oct 4-7, 2009. Delft, the Netherlands.
50. Rifkin, S.B.; Pridmore, P. 2001. Partners in planning: Information, participation and empowerment. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.
51. Rheinlaender, T. 2006. Street food quality, a matter of neatness and trust: A qualitative study of local practices and perceptions of food quality, food hygiene and food safety in urban Kumasi, Ghana. Unpublished MSc thesis, Institute of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
52. SADAOC (Sécurité Alimentaire Durable en Afrique de l'Ouest Centrale). 2002. Street food in Ghana. Types, environment, patronage, laws and regulations. Proceedings of a roundtable conference, 06 September 2001. Accra: Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER), University of Ghana, Accra.
53. Scheierling, S.M.; Bartone, C.; Mara, D.D.; Drechsel, P. 2010. Improving wastewater use in agriculture: An emerging priority. Policy Research Working Paper no. WPS 5412. Washington, DC: World Bank. Available at http://go.worldbank.org/UC28EAWNI0
54. Schwartzbrod, J. 2001. A collection of methods of analysis of helminth eggs and cysts in wastewater, sludge, soils and crops. France: University of Nancy.
55. Seidu, R.; Drechsel, P. 2010. Cost effectiveness analysis of interventions for diarrhoea disease reduction among consumers of wastewater-irrigated lettuce in Ghana. In Wastewater irrigation and health: Assessing and mitigation risks in low-income countries, ed. Drechsel, P.; Scott, C.A.; Raschid-Sally, L.; Redwood, M.; Bahri, A., 261-283. UK: Earthscan-IDRC-IWMI.
56. Seidu, R.; Heistad, A.; Amoah, P.; Drechsel, P.; Jenssen, P.D.; Strenstrom, T.-A. 2008. Quantification of the health risk associated with wastewater reuse in Accra, Ghana: A contribution toward local guidelines. Journal of Water and Health 6(4): 461-471.
57. Sharma, M.M.; Chang, Y.I.; Yen, T.F. 1985. Reversible and irreversible surface charge modification of bacteria for facilitating transport through porous media. Colloids Surfaces 16: 193-206.
58. Stevik, T.K.; Ausland, G.; Hanssen, J.F. 2004. Retention and removal of pathogenic bacteria in wastewater percolating through porous media. Water Research 38: 1355-1367.
59. Strauss, M. 1985. Health aspect of nightsoil and sludge use in agriculture and aquaculture: Part II: Survival of excreted pathogens in excreta and faecal sludges. IRCWD News 23(4-9).
60. Tomlins, K. 2006. Cited in: Street food boom in Ghana spurs calls for better hygiene. Available at www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/84/10/06-031006/en/index.html
61. Tyrrel, S.F.; Quinton, J.N. 2003. Overland flow transport of pathogens from agricultural land receiving faecal wastes. Journal of Applied Microbiology 94: 87-93.
62. UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme). 1997. International Environmental Technology Centre, Source Book of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation in Latin America and the Caribbean. Washington, DC: Unit of Sustainable Development and Environment, General Secretariat, Organization of American States. Available at www.oas.org/usde/publications/unit/oea59e/begin.htm#Contents
63. UNEP; UN-Habitat. 2010. Sick water? The central role of wastewater management in sustainable development. A rapid assessment report. Nairobi: UNEP.
64. WHO (World Health Organization). 1989. Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 187p.
65. WHO. 1994. Bench aids for diagnosis of intestinal parasites. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
66. WHO. 2002. World health report: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO.
67. WHO. 2006. Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater. Volume 2: Wastewater use in agriculture. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO, 219p.