The impact of altered herbicide residues in transgenic herbicide-resistant crops on standard setting for herbicide residues

Pest Management Science

Volumn 67, Issue 10, 2011, Pages 1193-1210

  Kleter, Gijs A ^a   Unsworth, John B ^b   Harris, Caroline A ^c  

^a WAGENINGEN UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

^b Exponent International Ltd ^*

^c Exponent International Ltd   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Genetic modification; Herbicide resistance; Herbicides; International harmonisation; Maximum residue limits; Pesticide residues; Regulatory affairs; Transgenic crops

Indexed keywords

PESTICIDE RESIDUE;

ENZYME ACTIVITY; HARMONIC ANALYSIS; INHIBITOR; MOLECULAR ANALYSIS; PESTICIDE RESISTANCE; REGULATORY APPROACH; TRANSGENIC PLANT;

CROP; GENETICS; HERBICIDE RESISTANCE; METABOLISM; REVIEW; TRANSGENIC PLANT;

CROPS, AGRICULTURAL; HERBICIDE RESISTANCE; PESTICIDE RESIDUES; PLANTS, GENETICALLY MODIFIED;

EID: 80052515135     PISSN: 1526498X     EISSN: 15264998     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ps.2128     Document Type: Review

References (118)

1. James C, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2010 (ISAAA Brief 42-2010), Executive Summary. [Online]. International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications, Ithaca, NY (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
2. Carpenter J and Gianessi L, Herbicide tolerant soybeans: why growers are adopting Roundup Ready varieties. AgBioForum 2: 65-72 (1999). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
3. Brimner TA, Gallivan GJ and Stephenson GR, Influence of herbicide-resistant canola on the environmental impact of weed management. Pest Manag Sci 61: 47-52 (2005).
4. Kleter GA, Bhula R, Bodnaruk K, Carazo E, Felsot AS, Harris CA, et al., Altered pesticide use on transgenic crops and the associated general impact from an environmental perspective. Pest Manag Sci 63: 1107-1115 (2007).
5. Kleter GA, Harris C, Stephenson G and Unsworth J, Comparison of herbicide regimes and the associated potential environmental effects of glyphosate-resistant crops versus what they replace in Europe. Pest Manag Sci 64: 479-488 (2008).
6. Community Register of Genetically Modified Food and Feed. [Online]. Directorate General Health and Consumers, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
7. Completed Consultations on Bioengineered Foods. [Online]. Food and Drug Administration, Washington, DC (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
8. Food and Nutrition, Approved Products, Novel Food Decisions. [Online]. Food Directorate, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
9. Classification of Herbicides According to Mode of Action (February 27, 2010). [Online]. Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (2010). Available: [9 May 2011].
10. Duke SO, Herbicide-Resistant Crops; Agricultural, Environmental, Economic, Regulatory, and Technical Aspects. CRC Lewis, Boca Raton, FL (1996).
11. Petition for Determination of Nonregulated Status: Sulfonylurea Tolerant Cotton Line 19-51a. [Online]. Dupont Agricultural Products, Wilmington, DE (1995). Available: [9 May 2011].
12. Harrison MA, Hayes RM and Mueller TC, Environment affects cotton and velvetleaf response to pyrithiobac. Weed Sci 44: 241-247 (1996).
13. ® Herbicide (Section 3 Specimen Label). [Online]. Dupont Agricultural Products, Wilmington, DE (2006). Available: [9 May 2011].
14. Petition for the Determination of Nonregulated Status for High Oleic 305423 Soybean; Additional Information on Environmental Assessment and Impact on Agronomic Practice. [Online]. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Johnston, IA (2007). Available: [9 May 2011].
15. ® Herbicide Tolerance Trait in Soybeans. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Johnston, IA (2009).
16. ® Herbicide Tolerance Trait in Corn. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Johnston, IA (2009).
17. USDA Petition for Nonregulated Status under 7 CFR 340.6 (Linum usitatissimum L., cv. "CDC Triffid"). [Online]. University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada (1998). Available: [9 May 2011].
18. Sebastian SA, Fader GM, Ulrich JF, Forney DR and Chaleff RS, Semidominant soybean mutation for resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides. Crop Sci 29: 1403-1408 (1989).
19. Tan S, Evans RR, Dahmer ML, Singh BK and Shaner DL, Imidazolinone-tolerant crops: history, current status and future. Pest Manag Sci 61: 246-257 (2005).
20. Kleter GA, Peijnenburg AACM and Aarts HJM, Health considerations regarding horizontal transfer of microbial transgenes present in genetically modified crops. J Biomed Biotechnol 2005: 326-352 (2005).
21. Oil and Linters from Bromoxynil-Tolerant Cotton Transformation Events 10211 and 10222, Application A379, Final Assessment Report. [Online]. Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Canberra/Wellington (2001). Available: [9 May 2011].
22. Oil from Bromoxynil-Tolerant Canola Line Westar-Oxy-235, Application A388, Final Assessment Report. [Online]. Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Canberra/Wellington (2002). Available: [9 May 2011].
23. Decision Documents-Determination of Environmental and Livestock Feed Safety. [Online]. Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Plant Biosafety Office, Nepean, ON, Canada (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
24. Petitions of Nonregulated Status Granted or Pending by APHIS. [Online]. United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, Biotechnology Regulatory Services, Riverdale, MD (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
25. Hoerlein G, Glufosinate (phosphinothricin), a natural amino acid with unexpected herbicidal properties. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 138: 73-145 (1994).
26. Wehrmann A, Van Vliet A, Opsomer C, Botterman J and Schulz A, The similarities of bar and pat gene products make them equally applicable for plant engineers. Nat Biotechnol 14: 1274-1278 (1996).
27. Declarations. [Online]. Bejo Seeds, Warmenhuizen, The Netherlands (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
28. Duke SO, Taking stock of herbicide-resistant crops ten years after introduction. Pest Manag Sci 61: 211-218 (2005).
29. Siehl DL, Castle LA, Gorton R, Chen YH, Bertain S, Cho HJ, et al, Evolution of a microbial acetyltransferase for modification of glyphosate: a novel tolerance strategy. Pest Manag Sci 61: 235-240 (2005).
30. Lee AH, Fishbein R and Mallipudi NM, Imidazolinones, in Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals, Part 1: Herbicides and Plant Growth Regulators, ed. by Roberts TR, Hutson DH, Lee PW, Nicholls PH and Plimmer JR. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, pp. 351-355 (1998).
31. Brown HM, Gaddamidi V and Lee PW, Sulfonylureas, in Metabolic Pathways of Agrochemicals, Part 1: Herbicides and Plant Growth Regulators, ed. by Roberts TR, Hutson DH, Lee PW, Nicholls PH and Plimmer JR. Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, pp. 451-473 (1998).
32. Buckland JL, Collins RF and Pullin E, Metabolism of bromoxynil octanoate in growing wheat. Pestic Sci 4: 149-162 (1973).
33. Cummins I, Burnet M and Edwards R, Biochemical characterisation of esterases active in hydrolyzing xenobiotics in wheat and competing weeds. Physiol Plantarum 113: 477-485 (2001).
34. Gershater M, Sharples K and Edwards R, Carboxylesterase activities toward pesticide esters in crops and weeds. Phytochemistry 67: 2561-2567 (2006).
35. Schaller B, Schneider B and Schutte HR, Biochemistry of phytoeffectors, 30. Investigations on the selectivity and the metabolism of the herbicide bromoxynil in plants. J Plant Physiol 139: 243-245 (1991).
36. Schaller B, Schneider B and Schutte HR, Metabolism of the herbicide bromoxynil in Hordeum vulgare and Stellaria media. Z Naturforsch C 47: 126-131 (1992).
37. Landmann C, Fink B and Schwab W, FaGT2: a multifunctional enzyme from strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa) fruits involved in the metabolism of natural and xenobiotic compounds. Planta 226: 417-428 (2007).
38. Buckland JL, Collins RF, Henderson MA and Pullin E, Radiochemical distribution and decline studies with bromoxynil octanoate in wheat. Pestic Sci 4: 689-700 (1973).
39. Cessna AJ, Simultaneous extraction and detection of residues of (2, 4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid and bromoxynil from wheat. J Agric Food Chem 28: 1229-1232 (1980).
40. Cessna AJ, Residues of the herbicides MCPA and bromoxynil in postemergence-treated triticale (× Triticosecale). Weed Technol 8: 586-590 (1994).
41. Grover R, Smith AE and Cessna AJ, Fate of bromoxynil n-butyrate and iso-octanoate applied as a mixture to a wheat field. J Environ Qual 23: 1304-1311 (1994).
42. Bromoxynil; pesticide tolerances (final rule). Fed Reg 62: 33 019-33 023 (1997). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
43. $\S$ 180.324, Bromoxynil; tolerances for residues, in Code of Federal Regulations (July 1, 2009), Title 40, Chapter I, Part 180. [Online]. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p. 497 (2009). Available: [9 May 2011].
44. Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED), Bromoxynil. [Online]. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC (1998). Available: [9 May 2011].
45. Re-evaluation Decision, Bromoxynil (RVD2008-21). [Online]. Pest Management Regulatory Agency, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada (2008). Available: [9 May 2011].
46. Residue Definitions for Chemicals with Maximum Residue Limits Regulated under the Pest Control Products Act (Residue Definitions as of 18 March 2011). [Online]. Health Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
47. Bromoxynil, diclofop-methyl, dicofol, diquat, etridiazole, et al.; tolerance actions. Fed Reg 72: 41 913-41 931 (2007). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
48. Dröge-Laser W, Siemeling U, Pühler A and Broer I, The metabolites of the herbicide L-phosphinothricin (glufosinate). Plant Physiol 105: 159-166 (1994).
49. Beriault JN, Horsman GP and Devine MD, Phloem transport of D, L-glufosinate and acetyl-L-glufosinate in glufosinate-resistant and -susceptible Brassica napus. Plant Physiol 121: 619-627 (1999).
50. Everman WJ, Mayhew CR, Burton JD, York AC and Wilcut JW, Absorption, translocation, and metabolism of 14C-glufosinate in glufosinate-resistant corn, goosegrass (Eleusine indica), large crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), and sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia). Weed Sci 57: 1-5 (2009).
51. Everman WJ, Thomas WE, Burton JD, York AC and Wilcut JW, Absorption, translocation, and metabolism of glufosinate in transgenic and nontransgenic cotton, palmer amaranth (Amaranthus palmeri), and pitted morningglory (Ipomoea lacunosa). Weed Sci 57: 357-361 (2009).
52. Pline WA, Wu J and Hatzios KK, Effects of temperature and chemical additives on the response of transgenic herbicide-resistant soybeans to glufosinate and glyphosate applications. Pestic Biochem Physiol 65: 119-131 (1999).
53. Ruhland M, Engelhardt G and Pawlizki K, Distribution and metabolism of D/L-, L- and D-glufosinate in transgenic, glufosinate-tolerant crops of maize (Zea mays L. ssp. mays) and oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. var. napus). Pest Manag Sci 60: 691-696 (2004).
54. Glufosinate-ammonium (175), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1998. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 148. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 135-144 (1999). Available: [9 May 2011].
55. Glufosinate-ammonium (175), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1998, Evaluations. Part I-Residues. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 152/1 and 152/2. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 693-748 (1999). Available: [9 May 2011].
56. Glufosinate-ammonium (175), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1991. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 111. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 68-72 (1991). Available: [9 May 2011].
57. Glufosinate-ammonium (175), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1999, Evaluations. Part I-Residues. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 157. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 443-449 (2000). Available: [9 May 2011].
58. Komossa D, Gennity I and Sandermann H, Plant metabolism of herbicides with C-P bonds: glyphosate. Pestic Biochem Physiol 43: 85-94 (1992).
59. Stock M, Hieke M, Weidhase RA and Schuette HR, Degradation of glyphosate in excised leaves of tobacco and sugar beet. J Plant Physiol 139: 171-174 (1991).
60. Cessna AJ, Darwent AL, Kirkland KJ, Townley-Smith L, Harker KN and Lefkovitch LP, Residues of glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA in wheat seed and foliage following preharvest applications. Can J Plant Sci 74: 653-661 (1994).
61. Cessna AJ and Waddington J, Dissipation of glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA in established crested wheatgrass following spring application. Can J Plant Sci 75: 759-762 (1995).
62. Cessna AJ, Darwent AL, Townley-Smith L, Harker KN and Kirkland KJ, Residues of glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA in canola seed following preharvest applications. Can J Plant Sci 80: 425-431 (2000).
63. Cessna AJ, Darwent AL, Townley-Smith L, Harker KN and Kirkland KJ, Residues of glyphosate and its metabolite AMPA in field pea, barley and flax seed following preharvest applications. Can J Plant Sci 82: 485-489 (2002).
64. Dick RE and Quinn JP, Glyphosate-degrading isolates from environmental samples: occurrence and pathways of degradation. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 43: 545-550 (1995).
65. Sprankle P, Sandberg CL, Meggitt WF and Penner D, Separation of glyphosate and possible metabolites by thin-layer chromatography. Weed Sci 26: 673-674 (1978).
66. Sandberg CL, Meggitt WF and Penner D, Absorption, translocation and metabolism of 14C-glyphosate in several weed species. Weed Res 20: 195-200 (1980).
67. Chen RF, Wang HH and Wang CY, Translocation and metabolism of injected glyphosate in lead tree (Leucaena leucocephala). Weed Sci 57: 229-234 (2009).
68. Nandula VK, Foy CL and Orcutt DM, Glyphosate for Orobanche aegyptiaca control in Vicia sativa and Brassica napus. Weed Sci 47: 486-491 (1999).
69. Duke SO, Glyphosate degradation in glyphosate-resistant and -susceptible crops and weeds. J Agric Food Chem 59: 5835-5841 (2011).
70. Duke SO, Rimando AM, Pace PF, Reddy KN and Smeda RJ, Isoflavone, glyphosate, and aminomethylphosphonic acid levels in seeds of glyphosate-treated, glyphosate-resistant soybean. J Agric Food Chem 51: 340-344 (2003).
71. Arregui MC, Lenardon A, Sanchez D, Maitre MI, Scotta R and Enrique S, Monitoring glyphosate residues in transgenic glyphosate-resistant soybean. Pest Manag Sci 60: 163-166 (2003).
72. Nandula VK, Reddy KN, Rimando AM, Duke SO and Poston DH, Glyphosate-resistant and -susceptible soybean (Glycine max) and canola (Brassica napus) dose response and metabolism relationships with glyphosate. J Agric Food Chem 55: 3540-3545 (2007).
73. Reddy KN, Rimando AM and Duke SO, Aminomethylphosphonic acid, a metabolite of glyphosate, causes injury in glyphosate-treated, glyphosate-resistant soybean. J Agric Food Chem 52: 5139-5143 (2004).
74. Reddy KN, Rimando AM, Duke SO and Nandula VK, Aminomethylphosphonic acid accumulation in plant species treated with glyphosate. J Agric Food Chem 56: 2125-2130 (2008).
75. Glyphosate (158), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1997, Evaluations. Part I-Residues. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 146. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 509-534 (1998). Available: [9 May 2011].
76. Glyphosate (158), in Pesticide Residues in Food-2005, Evaluations. Part I-Residues. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 184/1 and 184/2. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 303-500 (2006). Available: [9 May 2011].
77. Glyphosate (158), in Pesticide Residues in Food-2005. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 183. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 122-144 (2005). Available: [9 May 2011].
78. Glyphosate; pesticide tolerances. Fed Reg 73: 73 586-73 592 (2008). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
79. Glyphosate; pesticide tolerances. Fed Reg 74: 67 129-67 132 (2009). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
80. Application 1006-Food Derived from Herbicide-Tolerant Soybean Line DP-356043-5, Second Assessment Report. [Online]. Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Canberra/Wellington (2009). Available: [9 May 2011].
81. Application A1021-Food derived from Herbicide-tolerant Corn Line DP-098140-6, Approval Report, Supporting Document 2, Assessment of Glyphosate Residues. [Online]. Food Standards Australia New Zealand, Canberra/Wellington (2010). Available: [9 May 2011].
82. Modification of the residue definition of glyphosate in genetically modified maize grain and soybeans, and in products of animal origin. EFSA J 7: 1310 (2009). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
83. Feasibility of Establishing MRLs for Genetically Modified Crops and Metabolite Residues, Codex Committee on Pesticide Residues, Thirty-third Session, The Hague, The Netherlands, 2-7 April 2001 (CX/PR 01/7). [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme, CAC, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy (2001). Available: [9 May 2011].
84. Chlorimuron Ethyl. Petition for Tolerances on Field Corn and Soybean with Metabolism Studies on Ruminant and Poultry. Summary of Analytical Chemistry and Residue Data (EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0009-0007). [Online]. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, DC (2009). Available: [9 May 2011].
85. Rimsulfuron. Petitions for New or Amended Uses and Tolerances on Genetically Modified Field Corn and Soybeans. Summary of Analytical Chemistry and Residue Data (EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0004-0007). [Online]. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, DC (2009). Available: [9 May 2011].
86. Tribenuron Methyl. Petition to Establish New (and Amend Several Existing) Permanent Tolerances for Residues Associated with Food/Feed Use of the Herbicide on Genetically Modified Soybeans and Field Corn. Summary of Analytical Chemistry and Residue Data (EPA-HQ-OPP-2009-0005-0006). [Online]. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides and Toxic Substances, Washington, DC (2009). Available: [9 May 2011].
87. Chlorimuron ethyl; pesticide tolerances. Fed Reg 74: 67082-67088 (2009). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
88. Rimsulfuron; pesticide tolerances. Fed Reg 74: 67 132-67 137 (2009). [Online]. Available. [9 May 2011].
89. Tribenuron methyl; pesticide tolerances. Fed Reg 74: 67 124-67 129 (2009). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
90. Pesticide MRL Database. [Online]. United States Department of Agriculture, Foreign Agricultural Service, Washington, DC (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
91. Thifensulfuron methyl; notice of filing a pesticide petition to establish a tolerance for a certain pesticide chemical in or on food. Fed Reg 69: 40 920-40 927 (2004). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
92. Thifensulfuron methyl; pesticide tolerance. Fed Reg 69: 55 975-55 982 (2004). [9 May 2011].
93. Tribenuron methyl; notice of filing a pesticide petition to establish a tolerance for a certain pesticide chemical in or on food. Fed Reg 69: 40 909-40 916 (2004). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
94. Tribenuron methyl; pesticide tolerance. Fed Reg 69: 56 711-56 718 (2004). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
95. ® Main Label. [Online]. Dupont Agricultural Products, Wilmington, DE (2009). Available: [9 May 2011].
96. Bromoxynil; pesticide tolerance (final rule). Fed Reg 60: 27 414-27 415 (1995). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
97. Bromoxynil; pesticide tolerance (proposed rule). Fed Reg 60: 16 111-16 114 (1995). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
98. Bromoxynil; pesticide tolerance (proposed rule). Fed Reg 62: 24 065-24 073 (1997). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
99. Bromoxynil; pesticide tolerance (final rule). Fed Reg 63: 26 473-26 481 (1998). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
100. May OL, Bourland FM and Michols RL, Challenges in testing transgenic and nontransgenic cotton cultivars. Crop Sci 43: 1594-1601 (2003).
101. Transgenic varieties improving. Delta Farm Press, 19 August 2005 (2005). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
102. EU Pesticides Database, Pesticide EU-MRLs. [Online]. Directorate General Health and Consumers, European Commission, Brussels, Belgium (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
103. Duke SO and Cerdeira AL, Potential environmental impacts of herbicide-resistant crops. Collect Biosafety Rev 2: 66-143 (2005). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
104. Glufosinate-ammonium (175), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1999. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 153. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 121-129 (1999). Available: [9 May 2011].
105. JMPR, Glufosinate-ammonium (175), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1994. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 127. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 109-115 (1995). Available: [9 May 2011].
106. Pesticide Residues in Food: Maximum Residue Limits; Extraneous Maximum Residue Limits. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program, CAC, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
107. $\S$ 180.473, Glufosinate ammonium; tolerances for residues, in Code of Federal Regulations (July 1, 2007), Title 40, Chapter I, Part 180. [Online]. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, pp. 495-496 (2007). Available: [9 May 2011].
108. Glufosinate-ammonium; pesticide tolerance. Fed Reg 72: 72 622-72 626 (2007). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
109. Glyphosate (158), in Pesticide Residues in Food-1997. FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 145. [Online]. Joint FAO/WHO Meetings on Pesticide Residues, Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy, pp. 126-135 (1998). Available: [9 May 2011].
110. Guidance Document on the Definition of Residue (ENV/JM/MONO(2006)31). [Online]. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, France (2006). Available: [9 May 2011].
111. Residue Monitoring Reports, FDA Pesticide Program Residue Monitoring: 1993-2008. [Online]. United States Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Plant and Dairy Foods and Beverages, Washington, DC (2011). Available: [9 May 2011].
112. CFIA, Children's Food Chemical Residue Project Foods Aimed at Children 6 Months to 15 Years Report on Sampling for 2004-2006, Appendix C: List of Pesticides Included in the CFIA PMR-001-V1.4 Determination of Pesticides in Fruits and Vegetables (with Solid Phase Extraction Clean-Up and GC/MSD and HPLC Fluorescence Detection) Method. [Online]. Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa, ON, Canada. Available: [9 May 2011].
113. 2008 Annual report on pesticide residues according to article 32 of Regulation (EC) No. 396/2005. EFSA J 8: 1646 (2008). [Online]. Available: [9 May 2011].
114. Pesticide Data Program. [Online]. United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Marketing Service, Science and Technology, Monitoring Programs Office, Manassas, VA. Available: [9 May 2011].
115. Pesticide Residues Monitoring Report, Fourth Quarter Report 2006. [Online]. UK Pesticide Residues Committee, Chemicals Regulation Directorate, Consumer Safety and European Policy Branch, York, UK (2007). Available: [9 May 2011].
116. Pesticide Residues Monitoring Report, Third Quarter Results 2002. [Online]. UK Pesticide Residues Committee, Chemicals Regulation Directorate, Consumer Safety and European Policy Branch, York, UK (2003). Available: [9 May 2011].
117. Pesticide Residues Monitoring Report, Second Quarter Report 2006. [Online]. UK Pesticide Residues Committee, Chemicals Regulation Directorate, Consumer Safety and European Policy Branch, York, UK (2006). Available: [9 May 2011].
118. Harris CA and Gaston CP, Effects of refining predicted chronic dietary intakes of pesticide residues: a case study using glyphosate. Food Addit Contam Pt A 21: 857-864 (2004).