Hypercoagulability in cirrhosis: Causes and consequences

Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis

Volumn 9, Issue 9, 2011, Pages 1713-1723

  Tripodi, A ^a   Anstee, Q M ^b   Sogaard, K K ^c   Primignani, M ^d   Valla, D C ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MILAN   (Italy)

^b NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c AARHUS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Denmark)

^d FONDAZIONE IRCCS CA GRANDA OSPEDALE MAGGIORE POLICLINICO   (Italy)

^e BEAUJON HOSPITAL   (France)

Author keywords

Chronic liver disease; Factor VIII; Protein C; Thrombin; Thrombomodulin

Indexed keywords

ANTICOAGULANT AGENT; ANTIVITAMIN K; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 5 LEIDEN; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR 8; DABIGATRAN; DIPYRIDAMOLE; HEPARIN; HOMOCYSTEINE; INTERLEUKIN 6; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; MONOCYTE CHEMOTACTIC PROTEIN 1; PLATELET DERIVED GROWTH FACTOR; PROTEIN C; PROTEINASE ACTIVATED RECEPTOR 1; PROTEINASE ACTIVATED RECEPTOR 1 ANTAGONIST; RIVAROXABAN; SSR 182289; THROMBIN; THROMBIN INHIBITOR; THROMBOMODULIN; TRANSFORMING GROWTH FACTOR BETA; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UROKINASE;

ANTICOAGULATION; ANTITHROMBIN DEFICIENCY; BLEEDING; BLOOD CLOTTING FACTOR DEFICIENCY; BUDD CHIARI SYNDROME; CHRONIC LIVER DISEASE; CYTOKINE RELEASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; GASTROINTESTINAL HEMORRHAGE; GENE MUTATION; HEPATITIS B; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; HYPERCOAGULABILITY; HYPERHOMOCYSTEINEMIA; IN VITRO STUDY; INCIDENCE; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER FIBROSIS; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; LUNG EMBOLISM; LUNG FIBROSIS; NONHUMAN; PLASMINOGEN DEFICIENCY; PORTAL VEIN THROMBOSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN C DEFICIENCY; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; RECURRENT DISEASE; REVIEW; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

ANTICOAGULANTS; FACTOR VIII; HUMANS; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; PORTAL VEIN; PROTEIN C; PULMONARY EMBOLISM; RISK FACTORS; THROMBOPHILIA; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM; VENOUS THROMBOSIS;

EID: 80052404128     PISSN: 15387933     EISSN: 15387836     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1538-7836.2011.04429.x     Document Type: Review

References (112)

1. Tripodi A. Hemostasis abnormalities in chronic liver failure. In: Gines P, Kamath PS, Arroyo V, eds. Chronic Liver Failure: Mechanisms and Management. New York, NY: Springer 2010: 289-303.
2. Giannini EG, Savarino V. Thrombocytopenia in liver disease. Curr Opin Hematol 2008; 15: 473-80.
3. Tripodi A, Salerno F, Chantarangkul V, Clerici M, Cazzaniga M, Primignani M, Mannuccio Mannucci P. Evidence of normal thrombin generation in cirrhosis despite abnormal conventional coagulation tests. Hepatology 2005; 41: 553-8.
4. Tripodi A, Primignani M, Chantarangkul V, Clerici M, Dell'Era A, Fabris F, Salerno F, Mannucci PM. Thrombin generation in patients with cirrhosis: the role of platelets. Hepatology 2006; 44: 440-5.
5. Lisman T, Bakhtiari K, Pereboom IT, Hendriks HG, Meijers JC, Porte RJ. Normal to increased thrombin generation in patients undergoing liver transplantation despite prolonged conventional coagulation tests. J Hepatol 2010; 52: 355-61.
6. Gatt A, Riddell A, Calvaruso V, Tuddenham E, Makris M, Burroughs AK. Enhanced thrombin generation in patients with cirrhosis-induced coagulopathy. J Thromb Haemost 2010; 8: 1994-2000.
7. Tripodi A, Chantarangkul V, Mannucci PM. Acquired coagulation disorders: revisited using global coagulation/anticoagulation testing. Br J Haematol 2009; 147: 77-82.
8. Bosch J, Thabut D, Bendtsen F, D'Amico G, Albillos A, González Abraldes J, Fabricius S, Erhardtsen E, de Franchis R; for the European Study Group on rFVIIa in UGI Haemorrhage. Recombinant factor VIIa for upper gastrointestinal bleeding in patients with cirrhosis: a randomized, double-blind trial. Gastroenterology 2004; 127: 1123-30.
9. Bosch J, Thabut D, Albillos A, Carbonell N, Spicak J, Massard J, D'Amico G, Lebrec D, de Franchis R, Fabricius S, Cai Y, Bendtsen F; for the International Study Group on rFVIIa in UGI Hemorrhage. Recombinant factor VIIa for variceal bleeding in patients with advanced cirrhosis: a randomized, controlled trial. Hepatology 2008; 47: 1604-14.
10. Lodge JP, Jonas S, Jones RM, Olausson M, Mir-Pallardo J, Soefelt S, Garcia-Valdecasas JC, McAlister V, Mirza DF; for the rFVIIa OLT Study Group. Efficacy and safety of repeated perioperative doses of recombinant factor VIIa in liver transplantation. Liver Transpl 2005; 11: 973-9.
11. Planinsic RM, van der Meer J, Testa G, Grande L, Candela A, Porte RJ, Ghobrial RM, Isoniemi H, Schelde PB, Erhardtsen E, Klintmalm G, Emre S. Safety and efficacy of a single bolus administration of recombinant factor VIIa in liver transplantation due to chronic liver disease. Liver Transpl 2005; 11: 895-900.
12. Caldwell SH, Hoffman M, Lisman T, Macik BG, Northup PG, Reddy KR, Tripodi A, Sanyal AJ; Coagulation in Liver Disease Group. Coagulation disorders and hemostasis in liver disease: pathophysiology and critical assessment of current management. Hepatology 2006; 44: 1039-46.
13. Lisman T, Bongers TN, Adelmeijer J, Janssen HL, de Maat MP, de Groot PG, Leebeek FW. Elevated levels of von Willebrand factor in cirrhosis support platelet adhesion despite reduced functional capacity. Hepatology 2006; 44: 53-61.
14. Lisman T, Leebeek FW, Mosnier LO, Bouma BN, Meijers JC, Janssen HL, Nieuwenhuis HK, De Groot PG. Thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor deficiency in cirrhosis is not associated with increased plasma fibrinolysis. Gastroenterology 2001; 121: 131-9.
15. Colucci M, Binetti BM, Branca MG, Clerici C, Morelli A, Semeraro N, Gresele P. Deficiency of thrombin activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor in cirrhosis is associated with increased plasma fibrinolysis. Hepatology 2003; 38: 230-7.
16. Tripodi A, Primignani M, Chantarangkul V, Dell'Era A, Clerici M, de Franchis R, Colombo M, Mannucci PM. An imbalance of pro- vs anti-coagulation factors in plasma from patients with cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2009; 137: 2105-11.
17. Dahlback B. Progress in the understanding of the protein C anticoagulant pathway. Int J Hematol 2004; 79: 109-16.
18. Tripodi A, Primignani M, Lemma L, Chantarangkul V, Dell'Era A, Iannuzzi F, Aghemo A, Mannucci PM. Detection of the imbalance of pro- vs. anti-coagulant factors in cirrhosis by a simple laboratory method. Hepatology 2010; 52: 249-55.
19. O'Donnell J, Mumford AD, Manning RA, Laffan MA. Marked elevation of thrombin generation in patients with elevated FVIII:C and venous thromboembolism. Br J Haematol 2001; 115: 687-91.
20. Kyrle P, Eichinger S. Deep vein thrombosis. Lancet 2005; 365: 1163-74.
21. Goldhaber SZ. Pulmonary embolism. Lancet 2004; 363: 1295-305.
22. Heit JA. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism in the community: implications for prevention and management. J Thromb Thrombolysis 2006; 21: 23-9.
23. Cronin-Fenton DP, Søndergaard F, Pedersen LA, Fryzek JP, Cetin K, Acquavella J, Baron JA, Sørensen HT. Hospitalisation for venous thromboembolism in cancer patients and the general population: a population-based cohort study in Denmark, 1997-2006. Br J Cancer 2010; 103: 947-53.
24. Heit JA, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, Petterson TM, O'Fallon WM, Melton LJ III. Risk factors for deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based case-control study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 809-15.
25. Huerta C, Johansson S, Wallander MA, García Rodríguez LA. Risk factors and short-term mortality of venous thromboembolism diagnosed in the primary care setting in the United Kingdom. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167: 935-43.
26. Northup PG, McMahon MM, Ruhl AP, Altschuler SE, Volk-Bednarz A, Caldwell SH, Berg CL. Coagulopathy does not fully protect hospitalized cirrhosis patients from peripheral venous thromboembolism. Am J Gastroenterol 2006; 101: 1524-8.
27. Gulley D, Teal E, Suvannasankha A, Chalasani N, Liangpunsakul S. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in cirrhosis patients. Dig Dis Sci 2008; 53: 3012-7.
28. Garcia-Fuster MJ, Abdilla N, Fabiá MJ, Fernández C, Oliver V, Forner MJ. Venous thromboembolism and liver cirrhosis. Rev Esp Enferm Dig 2008; 100: 259-62.
29. Dabbagh O, Oza A, Prakash S, Sunna R, Saettele TM. Coagulopathy does not protect against venous thromboembolism in hospitalized patients with chronic liver disease. Chest 2010; 137: 1145-9.
30. Lizarraga WA, Dalia S, Reinert SE, Schiffman FJ. Venous thrombosis in patients with chronic liver disease. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis 2010; 21: 431-5.
31. Wu H, Nguyen GC. Liver cirrhosis is associated with venous thromboembolism among hospitalized patients in a nationwide US study. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010; 8: 800-5.
32. Saleh T, Matta F, Alali F, Stein PD. Venous thromboembolism with chronic liver disease. Am J Med 2011; 124: 64-8.
33. Aldawood A, Arabi Y, Aljumah A, Alsaadi A, Rishu A, Aldorzi H, Alqahtani S, Alsultan M, Felemban A. The incidence of venous thromboembolism and practice of deep venous thrombosis prophylaxis in hospitalized cirrhotic patients. Thromb J 2011; 9: 1.
34. Ali M, Ananthakrishnan AN, McGinley EL, Saeian K. Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in hospitalized patients with cirrhosis: a nationwide analysis. Dig Dis Sci 2011; 56: 2152-9.
35. Søgaard KK, Horváth-Puhó E, Grønbaek H, Jepsen P, Vilstrup H, Sørensen HT. Risk of venous thromboembolism in patients with liver disease: a nationwide population-based case-control study. Am J Gastroenterol 2009; 104: 96-101.
36. Di Minno MN, Tufano A, Rusolillo A, Di Minno G, Tarantino G. High prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver in patients with idiopathic venous thromboembolism. World J Gastroenterol 2010; 16: 6119-22.
37. Tanaka M, Wanless IR. Pathology of the liver in Budd-Chiari syndrome: portal vein thrombosis and the histogenesis of veno-centric cirrhosis, veno-portal cirrhosis, and large regenerative nodules. Hepatology 1998; 27: 488-96.
38. Wright M, Goldin R, Hellier S, Knapp S, Frodsham A, Hennig B, Hill A, Apple R, Cheng S, Thomas H, Thursz M. Factor V Leiden polymorphism and the rate of fibrosis development in chronic hepatitis C virus infection. Gut 2003; 52: 1206-10.
39. Poujol-Robert A, Boelle PY, Poupon R, Robert A. Factor V Leiden as a risk factor for cirrhosis in chronic hepatitis C. Hepatology 2004; 39: 1174-5.
40. Poujol-Robert A, Rosmorduc O, Serfaty L, Coulet F, Poupon R, Robert A. Genetic and acquired thrombotic factors in chronic hepatitis C. Am J Gastroenterol 2004; 99: 527-31.
41. Anstee QM, Goldin RD, Wright M, Martinelli A, Cox R, Thursz MR. Coagulation status modulates murine hepatic fibrogenesis: implications for the development of novel therapies. J Thromb Haemost 2008; 6: 1336-43.
42. Xu Z, Westrick RJ, Shen YC, Eitzman DT. Pulmonary fibrosis is increased in mice carrying the factor V Leiden mutation following bleomycin injury. Thromb Haemost 2001; 85: 441-4.
43. Wanless IR, Liu JJ, Butany J. Role of thrombosis in the pathogenesis of congestive hepatic fibrosis (cardiac cirrhosis). Hepatology 1995; 21: 1232-7.
44. Wanless IR, Wong F, Blendis LM, Greig P, Heathcote EJ, Levy G. Hepatic and portal vein thrombosis in cirrhosis: possible role in development of parenchymal extinction and portal hypertension. Hepatology 1995; 21: 1238-47.
45. Anstee QM, Wright M, Goldin R, Thursz MR. Parenchymal extinction: coagulation and hepatic fibrogenesis. Clin Liver Dis 2009; 13: 117-26.
46. Mann J, Mann DA. Transcriptional regulation of hepatic stellate cells. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2009; 61: 497-512.
47. Mann DA, Marra F. Fibrogenic signalling in hepatic stellate cells. J Hepatol 2010; 52: 949-50.
48. Fiorucci S, Antonelli E, Distrutti E, Severino B, Fiorentina R, Baldoni M, Caliendo G, Santagada V, Morelli A, Cirino G. PAR1 antagonism protects against experimental liver fibrosis. Role of proteinase receptors in stellate cell activation. Hepatology 2004; 39: 365-75.
49. Marra F, DeFranco R, Grappone C, Milani S, Pinzani M, Pellegrini G, Laffi G, Gentilini P. Expression of the thrombin receptor in human liver: up-regulation during acute and chronic injury. Hepatology 1998; 27: 462-71.
50. Di Cera E. Thrombin interactions. Chest 2003; 124: 11S-7S.
51. Borensztajn K, Stiekema J, Nijmeijer S, Reitsma PH, Peppelenbosch MP, Spek CA. Factor Xa stimulates proinflammatory and profibrotic responses in fibroblasts via protease-activated receptor-2 activation. Am J Pathol 2008; 172: 309-20.
52. Riewald M, Kravchenko VV, Petrovan RJ, O'Brien PJ, Brass LF, Ulevitch RJ, Ruf W. Gene induction by coagulation factor Xa is mediated by activation of protease-activated receptor 1. Blood 2001; 97: 3109-16.
53. Riewald M, Ruf W. Mechanistic coupling of protease signaling and initiation of coagulation by tissue factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2001; 98: 7742-7.
54. Jenkins RG, Su X, Su G, Scotton CJ, Camerer E, Laurent GJ, Davis GE, Chambers RC, Matthay MA, Sheppard D. Ligation of protease-activated receptor 1 enhances alpha(v)beta6 integrin-dependent TGF-beta activation and promotes acute lung injury. J Clin Invest 2006; 116: 1606-14.
55. Gaca MD, Zhou X, Benyon RC. Regulation of hepatic stellate cell proliferation and collagen synthesis by proteinase-activated receptors. J Hepatol 2002; 36: 362-9.
56. Sullivan BP, Weinreb PH, Violette SM, Luyendyk JP. The coagulation system contributes to alphaVbeta6 integrin expression and liver fibrosis induced by cholestasis. Am J Pathol 2010; 177: 2837-49.
57. Howell DC, Johns RH, Lasky JA, Shan B, Scotton CJ, Laurent GJ, Chambers RC. Absence of proteinase-activated receptor-1 signaling affords protection from bleomycin-induced lung inflammation and fibrosis. Am J Pathol 2005; 166: 1353-65.
58. Martinelli A, Knapp S, Anstee Q, Worku M, Tommasi A, Zucoloto S, Goldin R, Thursz M. Effect of a thrombin receptor (protease-activated receptor 1, PAR-1) gene polymorphism in chronic hepatitis C liver fibrosis. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008; 23: 1403-9.
59. Cederqvist K, Haglund C, Heikkila P, Hollenberg MD, Karikoski R, Andersson S. High expression of pulmonary proteinase-activated receptor 2 in acute and chronic lung injury in preterm infants. Pediatr Res 2005; 57: 831-6.
60. Masamune A, Kikuta K, Satoh M, Suzuki N, Shimosegawa T. Protease-activated receptor-2-mediated proliferation and collagen production of rat pancreatic stellate cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2005; 312: 651-8.
61. Xiong J, Zhu Z, Liu J, Wang Y, Li Z. Role of protease activated receptor-2 expression in renal interstitial fibrosis model in mice. J Huazhong Univ Sci Technolog Med Sci 2005; 25: 523-6.
62. Scotton CJ, Krupiczojc MA, Konigshoff M, Mercer PF, Lee YC, Kaminski N, Morser J, Post JM, Maher TM, Nicholson AG, Moffatt JD, Laurent GJ, Derian CK, Eickelberg O, Chambers RC. Increased local expression of coagulation factor X contributes to the fibrotic response in human and murine lung injury. J Clin Invest 2009; 119: 2550-63.
63. Pinzani M. PDGF and signal transduction in hepatic stellate cells. Front Biosci 2002; 7: d1720-6.
64. Kodama T, Takehara T, Hikita H, Shimizu S, Li W, Miyagi T, Hosui A, Tatsumi T, Ishida H, Tadokoro S, Ido A, Tsubouchi H, Hayashi N. Thrombocytopenia exacerbates cholestasis-induced liver fibrosis in mice. Gastroenterology 2010; 138: 2487-98.
65. Abdel-Salam OM, Baiuomy AR, Ameen A, Hassan NS. A study of unfractionated and low molecular weight heparins in a model of cholestatic liver injury in the rat. Pharmacol Res 2005; 51: 59-67.
66. Abe W, Ikejima K, Lang T, Okumura K, Enomoto N, Kitamura T, Takei Y, Sato N. Low molecular weight heparin prevents hepatic fibrogenesis caused by carbon tetrachloride in the rat. J Hepatol 2007; 46: 286-94.
67. Duplantier JG, Dubuisson L, Senant N, Freyburger G, Laurendeau I, Herbert JM, Desmouliere A, Rosenbaum J. A role for thrombin in liver fibrosis. Gut 2004; 53: 1682-7.
68. Wanless IR, Belgiorno J, Huet PM. Hepatic sinusoidal fibrosis induced by cholesterol and stilbestrol in the rabbit: 1. Morphology and inhibition of fibrogenesis by dipyridamole. Hepatology 1996; 24: 855-64.
69. Gunther A, Lubke N, Ermert M, Schermuly RT, Weissmann N, Breithecker A, Markart P, Ruppert C, Quanz K, Ermert L, Grimminger F, Seeger W. Prevention of bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis by aerosolization of heparin or urokinase in rabbits. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168: 1358-65.
70. Dhar A, Anstee QM, Sadiq F, Levene A, Goldin R, Thursz M. Factor Xa Inhibition Suppresses Thioacetamide Induced Liver Fibrosis. Hepatology 2010; 52(Suppl. 1): 1125A.
71. Shi J, Hao JH, Ren WH, Zhu JR. Effects of heparin on liver fibrosis in patients with chronic hepatitis B. World J Gastroenterol 2003; 9: 1611-4.
72. Kubo H, Nakayama K, Yanai M, Suzuki T, Yamaya M, Watanabe M, Sasaki H. Anticoagulant therapy for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Chest 2005; 128: 1475-82.
73. Yee TT, Griffioen A, Sabin CA, Dusheiko G, Lee CA. The natural history of HCV in a cohort of haemophilic patients infected between 1961 and 1985. Gut 2000; 47: 845-51.
74. Papatheodoridis GV, Papakonstantinou E, Andrioti E, Cholongitas E, Petraki K, Kontopoulou I, Hadziyannis SJ. Thrombotic risk factors and extent of liver fibrosis in chronic viral hepatitis. Gut 2003; 52: 404-9.
75. Goulding C, O'Brien C, Egan H, Hegarty JE, McDonald G, O'Farrelly C, White B, Kelleher D, Norris S. The impact of inherited prothrombotic risk factors on individuals chronically infected with hepatitis C virus from a single source. J Viral Hepat 2007; 14: 255-9.
76. Papatheodoridis GV, Chrysanthos N, Cholongitas E, Pavlou E, Apergis G, Tiniakos DG, Andrioti E, Theodossiades G, Archimandritis AJ. Thrombotic risk factors and liver histologic lesions in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Hepatol 2009; 51: 931-8.
77. Bogatkevich GS, Ludwicka-Bradley A, Nietert PJ, Akter T, van Ryn J, Silver RM. Anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects of the oral direct thrombin inhibitor dabigatran etexilate in a murine model of interstitial lung disease. Arthritis Rheum 2011; 63: 1416-25.
78. Nonami T, Yokoyama I, Iwatsuki S, Starzl TE. The incidence of portal vein thrombosis at liver transplantation. Hepatology 1992; 16: 1195-8.
79. Gimeno FA, Calvo J, Loinaz C, Meneu JC, Perez B, Gomez R, Jimenez C, Abradelo M, Moreno A, Sesma A, García I, Moreno E. Comparative analysis of the results of orthotopic liver transplantation in patients with and without portal vein thrombosis. Transplant Proc 2005; 37: 3899-903.
80. Englesbe MJ, Kubus J, Muhammad W, Sonnenday CJ, Welling T, Punch JD, Lynch RJ, Marrero JA, Pelletier SJ. Portal vein thrombosis and survival in patients with cirrhosis. Liver Transpl 2010; 16: 83-90.
81. Yerdel MA, Gunson B, Mirza D, Karayalcin K, Olliff S, Buckels J, Mayer D, McMaster P, Pirenne J. Portal vein thrombosis in adults undergoing liver transplantation: risk factors, screening, management, and outcome. Transplantation 2000; 69: 1873-88.
82. Orloff MJ, Orloff MS, Orloff SL, Girard B. Portal vein thrombosis in cirrhosis with variceal hemorrhage. J Gastrointest Surg 1997; 1: 123-30, discussion 130-121.
83. D'Amico G, De Franchis R. Upper digestive bleeding in cirrhosis. Post-therapeutic outcome and prognostic indicators. Hepatology 2003; 38: 599-612.
84. Okuda K, Ohnishi K, Kimura K, Matsutani S, Sumida M, Goto N, Musha H, Takashi M, Suzuki N, Shinagawa T. Incidence of portal vein thrombosis in liver cirrhosis. An angiographic study in 708 patients. Gastroenterology 1985; 89: 279-86.
85. Francoz C, Belghiti J, Vilgrain V, Sommacale D, Paradis V, Condat B, Denninger MH, Sauvanet A, Valla D, Durand F. Splanchnic vein thrombosis in candidates for liver transplantation: usefulness of screening and anticoagulation. Gut 2005; 54: 691-7.
86. Amitrano L, Brancaccio V, Guardascione MA, Margaglione M, Sacco M, Martino R, De Nucci C, Mosca S, Iannaccone L, Ames PR, Romano L, Balzano A. Portal vein thrombosis after variceal endoscopic sclerotherapy in cirrhotic patients: role of genetic thrombophilia. Endoscopy 2002; 34: 535-8.
87. Hou PC, McFadzean AJ. Thrombosis and Intimal Thickening in the Portal System in Cirrhosis of the Liver. J Pathol Bacteriol 1965; 89: 473-80.
88. Monarca A, Natangelo R, Tavani E, Azzolini V. Cirrhosis and portal vein thrombosis. Gastroenterology 1986; 90: 509.
89. Englesbe MJ, Schaubel DE, Cai S, Guidinger MK, Merion RM. Portal vein thrombosis and liver transplant survival benefit. Liver Transpl 2010; 16: 999-1005.
90. Imamura H, Shimada R, Kubota M, Matsuyama Y, Nakayama A, Miyagawa S, Makuuchi M, Kawasaki S. Preoperative portal vein embolization: an audit of 84 patients. Hepatology 1999; 29: 1099-105.
91. Harada H, Imamura H, Miyagawa S, Kawasaki S. Fate of the human liver after hemihepatic portal vein embolization: cell kinetic and morphometric study. Hepatology 1997; 26: 1162-70.
92. Doenecke A, Tsui TY, Zuelke C, Scherer MN, Schnitzbauer AA, Schlitt HJ, Obed A. Pre-existent portal vein thrombosis in liver transplantation: influence of pre-operative disease severity. Clin Transplant 2010; 24: 48-55.
93. Amitrano L, Guardascione MA, Brancaccio V, Margaglione M, Manguso F, Iannaccone L, Grandone E, Balzano A. Risk factors and clinical presentation of portal vein thrombosis in patients with liver cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2004; 40: 736-41.
94. Mangia A, Villani MR, Cappucci G, Santoro R, Ricciardi R, Facciorusso D, Leandro G, Caruso N, Andriulli A. Causes of portal venous thrombosis in cirrhotic patients: the role of genetic and acquired factors. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2005; 17: 745-51.
95. Zocco MA, Di Stasio E, De Cristofaro R, Novi M, Ainora ME, Ponziani F, Riccardi L, Lancellotti S, Santoliquido A, Flore R, Pompili M, Rapaccini GL, Tondi P, Gasbarrini GB, Landolfi R, Gasbarrini A. Thrombotic risk factors in patients with liver cirrhosis: correlation with MELD scoring system and portal vein thrombosis development. J Hepatol 2009; 51: 682-9.
96. Amitrano L, Ames PR, Guardascione MA, Lopez LR, Menchise A, Brancaccio V, Iannaccone L, Balzano A. Antiphospholipid Antibodies and Antiphospholipid Syndrome: role in Portal Vein Thrombosis in Patients With and Without Liver Cirrhosis. Clin Appl Thromb Hemost 2011; in press.
97. Pellicelli AM, D'Ambrosio C, Barbaro G, Villani R, Guarascio P, Fondaro L, Cortese A. Clinical and genetic factors associated to the development of portal vein thrombosis in cirrhotic patients without hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 2011; 54: S77.
98. Valla DC. Budd-Chiari syndrome and veno-occlusive disease/sinusoidal obstruction syndrome. Gut 2008; 57: 1469-78.
99. Rautou PE, Douarin L, Denninger MH, Escolano S, Lebrec D, Moreau R, Vidaud M, Itzykson R, Moucari R, Bezeaud A, Valla D, Plessier A. Bleeding in patients with Budd-Chiari syndrome. J Hepatol 2011; 54: 56-63.
100. Plessier A, Darwish-Murad S, Hernandez-Guerra M, Consigny Y, Fabris F, Trebicka J, Heller J, Morard I, Lasser L, Langlet P, Denninger MH, Vidaud D, Condat B, Hadengue A, Primignani M, Garcia-Pagan JC, Janssen HL, Valla D. Acute portal vein thrombosis unrelated to cirrhosis: a prospective multicenter follow-up study. Hepatology 2010; 51: 210-8.
101. DeLeve LD, Valla DC, Garcia-Tsao G. Vascular disorders of the liver. Hepatology 2009; 49: 1729-64.
102. Amitrano L, Guardascione MA, Menchise A, Martino R, Scaglione M, Giovine S, Romano L, Balzano A. Safety and efficacy of anticoagulation therapy with low molecular weight heparin for portal vein thrombosis in patients with liver cirrhosis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2010; 44: 448-51.
103. Pellicelli AM, Guarascio P, D'Ambrosio C, Lusi AE, Villani R, Fondaro L, Cerasari G. Portal vein thrombosis in cirrhotic patients: safety and efficacy of low dosage of enoxaparin. J Hepatol 2010; 52: S80.
104. Senzolo M, Patch D, Burra P, Burroughs AK. Tips for Portal Vein Thrombosis (PVT) in Cirrhosis: not Only Unblocking a Pipe. J Hepatol 2011; in press.
105. Luca A, Miraglia R, Caruso S, Milazzo M, Sapere C, Maruzzelli L, Vizzini G, Tuzzolino F, Gridelli B, Bosch J. Short- and long-term effects of the transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt on portal vein thrombosis in patients with cirrhosis. Gut 2011; 60: 846-52.
106. Han G, Qi X, He C, Yin Z, Wang J, Xia J, Yang Z, Bai M, Meng X, Niu J, Wu K, Fan D. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for portal vein thrombosis with symptomatic portal hypertension in liver cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2011; 54: 78-88.
107. Van Ha TG, Hodge J, Funaki B, Lorenz J, Rosenblum J, Straus C, Leef J. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt placement in patients with cirrhosis and concomitant portal vein thrombosis. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2006; 29: 785-90.
108. Bauer J, Johnson S, Durham J, Ludkowski M, Trotter J, Bak T, Wachs M. The role of TIPS for portal vein patency in liver transplant patients with portal vein thrombosis. Liver Transpl 2006; 12: 1544-51.
109. Perarnau JM, Baju A, D'Alteroche L, Viguier J, Ayoub J. Feasibility and long-term evolution of TIPS in cirrhotic patients with portal thrombosis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010; 22: 1093-8.
110. Zecchini R, Ferrari A, Bernabucci V, Lei B, Vukotic R, De Maria N, Schepis F. Anticoagulant therapy is safe and effective in preventing portal vein thrombosis in advanced cirrhotic patients: a prospective randomized controlled study. J Hepatol 2010; 52: S460.
111. Bechmann LP, Sichau M, Wichert M, Gerken G, Kroger K, Hilgard P. Low-molecular-weight heparin in patients with advanced cirrhosis. Liver Int 2011; 31: 75-82.
112. Tripodi A. Monitoring oral anticoagulant therapy. In: Olson JD, Preston FE, S K, eds. Quality in Laboratory Hemostasis and Thrombosis. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009: 179-89.