4 Gastrointestinal opportunistic infections

HIV Medicine

Volumn 12, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2011, Pages 43-54

  Beeching, N J ^a   Jones, R ^b   Gazzard, B ^b  

^a LIVERPOOL SCHOOL OF TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

^b CHELSEA AND WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cryptosporidiosis; Diarrhoea; Gastrointestinal opportunistic infection; Oesophagitis

Indexed keywords

ACICLOVIR; ALBENDAZOLE; AMPHOTERICIN B LIPID COMPLEX; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; CASPOFUNGIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CLOTRIMAZOLE; FLUCONAZOLE; FOSCARNET; FUMAGILLIN; GANCICLOVIR; ITRACONAZOLE; IVERMECTIN; METRONIDAZOLE; NITAZOXANIDE; NYSTATIN; PYRIMETHAMINE; SULFAMETHOXAZOLE; THALIDOMIDE; TINIDAZOLE; TRIMETHOPRIM; VALACICLOVIR; VALGANCICLOVIR; VANCOMYCIN; ZIDOVUDINE;

AMEBIASIS; ARTICLE; CANDIDIASIS; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS; CYCLOSPORIASIS; CYTOMEGALOVIRUS INFECTION; DIARRHEA; DRUG SUBSTITUTION; ENTAMOEBA; ESOPHAGITIS; ESOPHAGOSCOPY; GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTION; GIARDIASIS; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; ISOSPORIASIS; LOADING DRUG DOSE; MICROSPORIDIOSIS; MYCOBACTERIOSIS; NONHUMAN; OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SALMONELLOSIS; SHIGELLOSIS; STRONGYLOIDIASIS;

EID: 80051882490     PISSN: 14642662     EISSN: 14681293     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-1293.2011.00944_5.x     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. G Brook, J Main, M Nelson et al. BHIVA Viral Hepatitis Working Group British HIV Association guidelines for the management of coinfection with HIV-1 and hepatitis B or C virus 2010. HIV Med 2010; 11: 1-30.
2. Gaitán-Cepeda LA, Martínez-González M, Ceballos-Salobreña A. Oral candidosis as a clinical marker of immune failure in patients with HIV/AIDS on HAART. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2005; 19: 70-77.
3. Ramírez-Amador V, Ponce-de-León S, Anaya-Saavedra G, Crabtree Ramírez B, Sierra-Madero J. Oral lesions as clinical markers of highly active antiretroviral therapy failure: a nested case-control study in Mexico City. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 925-932.
4. Pienaar ED, Young T, Holmes H. Interventions for the prevention and management of oropharyngeal candidiasis associated with HIV infection in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006; 3: CD003940.
5. Yap I, Guan R, Kang JY, Gwee KA, Tan CC. Pill-induced esophageal ulcer. Singapore Med J 1993; 34: 257-258.
6. Kadayifci A, Gulsen MT, Koruk M, Savas MC. Doxycycline-induced pill esophagitis. Dis Esophagus 2004; 17: 168-171.
7. Wilcox CM, Alexander LN, Clark WS, Thompson SE. Fluconazole compared with endoscopy for human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients with esophageal symptoms. Gastroenterology 1996; 110: 1803-1809.
8. Barbaro G, Barbarini G, Calderon W, Grisorio B, Alcini P, Di Lorenzo G. Fluconazole versus itraconazole for candida esophagitis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Candida Esophagitis. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 1169-1177.
9. Villanueva A, Gotuzzo E, Arathoon EG et al. A randomized double-blind study of caspofungin versus fluconazole for the treatment of esophageal candidiasis. Am J Med 2002; 113: 294-299.
10. Arathoon EG, Gotuzzo E, Noriega LM, Berman RS, DiNubile MJ, Sable CA. Randomized, double-blind, multicenter study of caspofungin versus amphotericin B for treatment of oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiases. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 451-457.
11. Dieterich CT, Wilcox CM. Diagnosis and treatment of esophageal diseases associated with HIV infection. Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of Gastroenterology. Am J Gastroenterol 1996; 91: 2265-2269.
12. Revankar SG, Kirkpatrick WR, McAtee RK et al. A randomized trial of continuous or intermittent therapy with fluconazole for oropharyngeal candidiasis in HIV-infected patients: clinical outcomes and development of fluconazole resistance. Am J Med 1998; 105: 7-11.
13. Pagani JL, Chave JP, Casjka C, Glauser MP, Bille J. Efficacy, tolerability and development of resistance in HIV-positive patients treated with fluconazole for secondary prevention of oropharyngeal candidiasis: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 50: 231-240.
14. Wilcox CM, Schwartz DA, Clark WS. Esophageal ulceration in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Causes, response to therapy, and long-term outcome. Ann Intern Med 1995; 123: 143-149.
15. Wilcox CM, Straub RF, Schwartz DA. Cytomegalovirus esophagitis in AIDS: a prospective evaluation of clinical response to ganciclovir therapy, relapse rate, and long-term outcome. Am J Med 1995; 98: 169-176.
16. Singh N, Wannstedt C, Keyes L et al. Valganciclovir as preemptive therapy for cytomegalovirus in cytomegalovirus-seronegative liver transplant recipients of cytomegalovirus-seropositive donor allografts. Liver Transpl 2008; 14: 240-244.
17. Wilcox CM, Monkemuller KE. Review article: the therapy of gastrointestinal infections associated with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1997; 11: 425-443.
18. Zolopa A, Andersen J, Powderly W et al. Early antiretroviral therapy reduces AIDS progression/death in individuals with acute opportunistic infections: a multicenter randomized strategy trial. PLoS One 2009; 4: e5575.
19. Cauda R, Tacconelli E, Tumbarello M et al. Role of protease inhibitors in preventing recurrent oral candidosis in patients with HIV infection: a prospective case-control study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1999; 21: 20-25.
20. Cunningham AL, Grohman GS, Harkness J et al. Gastrointestinal viral infections in homosexual men who were symptomatic and seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 1988; 158: 386-391.
21. Cunliffe NA, Gondwe JS, Kirkwood CD et al. Effect of concomitant HIV infection on presentation and outcome of rotavirus gastroenteritis in Malawian children. Lancet 2001; 358: 550-555.
22. Wanke CA, Mayer H, Weber R, Zbinden R, Watson DA, Acheson D. Enteroaggregative Escherichia coli as a potential cause of diarrheal disease in adults infected with human immunodeficiency virus. J Infect Dis 1998; 178: 185-190.
23. Huang DB, Mohanty A, DuPont HL, Okhuysen PC, Chiang T. A review of an emerging enteric pathogen: enteroaggregative Escherichia coli. J Med Microbiol 2006; 55: 1303-1311.
24. Bartlett JG, Belitsos PC, Sears CL. AIDS enteropathy. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 15: 726-735.
25. Carlson S, Yokoo H, Craig RM. Small intestinal HIV-associated enteropathy: evidence for panintestinal enterocyte dysfunction. J Lab Clin Med 1994; 124: 652-659.
26. Schmidt W, Schneider T, Heise W et al. Stool viruses, coinfections, and diarrhea in HIV-infected patients. Berlin Diarrhea/Wasting Syndrome Study Group. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996; 13: 33-38.
27. Thomas PD, Pollok RC, Gazzard BG. Enteric viral infections as a cause of diarrhoea in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. HIV Med 1999; 1: 19-24.
28. Sanchez TH, Brooks JT, Sullivan PS et al. Bacterial diarrhea in persons with HIV infection, United States, 1992-2002. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1621-1627.
29. Jacobs JL, Gold JW, Murray HW, Roberts RB, Armstrong D. Salmonella infections in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102: 186-188.
30. Smith PD, Macher AM, Bookman MA et al. Salmonella typhimurium enteritis and bacteremia in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Ann Intern Med 1985; 102: 207-209.
31. Tocalli L, Nardi G, Mammino A, Salvaggio A, Salvaggio L. Salmonellosis diagnosed by the laboratory of the 'L. Sacco' Hospital of Milan (Italy) in patients with HIV disease. Eur J Epidemiol 1991; 7: 690-695.
32. Conlon CP, Pinching AJ, Perera CU, Moody A, Luo NP, Lucas SB. HIV-related enteropathy in Zambia: a clinical, microbiological and histological study. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1990; 42: 83-88.
33. Gilks CF, Brindle RJ, Otieno LS et al. Life-threatening bacteraemia in HIV seropositive adults admitted to hospital in Nairobi, Kenya. Lancet 1990; 336: 545-549.
34. Drew WL, Buhles W, Erlich KS. Herpesvirus infections (cytomegalovirus, herpes simplex virus, varicella-zoster virus). How to use ganciclovir (DHPG) and acyclovir. Infect Dis Clin North Am 1988; 2: 495-509.
35. Nelson MR, Shanson DC, Hawkins DA, Gazzard BG. Salmonella, campylobacter and shigella in HIV-seropositive patients. AIDS 1992; 6: 1495-1498.
36. Bottone EJ, Wormser GP, Duncanson FP. Nontyphoidal Salmonella bacteremia as an early infection in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 1984; 2: 247-250.
37. Peters RP, Zijlstra EE, Schijffelen MJ et al. A prospective study of bloodstream infections as cause of fever in Malawi: clinical predictors and implications for management. Trop Med Int Health 2004; 9: 928-934.
38. Chierakul W, Rajanuwong A, Wuthiekanun V et al. The changing pattern of bloodstream infections associated with the rise in HIV prevalence in northeastern Thailand. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2004; 98: 678-686.
39. Blanshard C, Francis N, Gazzard BG. Investigation of chronic diarrhoea in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A prospective study of 155 patients. Gut 1996; 39: 824-832.
40. Zulu I, Kelly P, Mwansa J, Veitch A, Farthing MJ. Contrasting incidence of Clostridium difficile and other enteropathogens in AIDS patients in London and Lusaka. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2000; 94: 167-168.
41. Wongwanich S, Ramsiri S, Kusum M, Warachit P. Clostridium difficile infections in HIV-positive patients. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health 2000; 31: 537-539.
42. Pulvirenti JJ, Mehra T, Hafiz I et al. Epidemiology and outcome of Clostridium difficile infection and diarrhea in HIV infected inpatients. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2002; 44: 325-330.
43. Hutin Y, Casin I, Lesprit P et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for Clostridium difficile colonization at admission to an infectious diseases ward. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 920-924.
44. Molina J, Casin I, Hausfater P et al. Campylobacter infections in HIV-infected patients: clinical and bacteriological features. AIDS 1995; 9: 881-885.
45. Baer JT, Vugia DJ, Reingold AL et al. HIV infection as a risk factor for shigellosis. Emerg Infect Dis 1999; 5: 820-823.
46. Lu SS, Schwartz JM, Simon DM, Brandt LJ. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with HIV positivity and AIDS: a prospective controlled study. Am J Gastroenterol 1994; 89: 1226-1229.
47. Bartlett JG. Changing trends in bacterial infections: Staphylococcus aureus, bacterial pneumonia, Clostridium difficile. Top HIV Med 2007; 15: 94-98.
48. Cozart JC, Kalangi SS, Clench MH et al. Clostridium difficile diarrhea in patients with AIDS versus non-AIDS controls. Methods of treatment and clinical response to treatment. J Clin Gastroenterol 1993; 16: 192-194.
49. De Toledo FG, Symes SN. Leukemoid reaction due to Clostridium difficile infection in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: two case reports and a review of the literature. South Med J 2004; 97: 388-392.
50. Department of Health and Health Protection Agency. Clostridium difficile infection: how to deal with the problem. Department of Health 2009. Available from (last accessed 12 August 2009).
51. DiRienzo AG, van Der Horst C, Finkelstein DM, Frame P, Bozzette SA, Tashima KT. Efficacy of trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole for the prevention of bacterial infections in a randomized prophylaxis trial of patients with advanced HIV infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2002; 18: 89-94.
52. Casado JL, Valdezate S, Calderon C et al. Zidovudine therapy protects against Salmonella bacteremia recurrence in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients. J Infect Dis 1999; 179: 1553-1556.
53. Hung CC, Hung MN, Hsueh PR et al. Risk of recurrent nontyphoid Salmonella bacteremia in HIV-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy and an increasing trend of fluoroquinolone resistance. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: e60-67.
54. Sia IG, Patel R. New strategies for prevention and therapy of cytomegalovirus infection and disease in solid-organ transplant recipients. Clin Microbiol Rev 2000; 13: 83-121.
55. Gallant JE, Moore RD, Richman DD, Chaisson RE. Incidence and natural history of cytomegalovirus disease in patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus disease treated with zidovudine. The Zidovudine Epidemiology Study Group. J Infect Dis 1992; 166: 1223-1227.
56. Shepp DH, Moses JE, Kaplan MH. Seroepidemiology of cytomegalovirus in patients with advanced HIV disease: influence on disease expression and survival. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1996; 11: 460-468.
57. Jacobson MA, Stanley H, Holtzer C, Margolis TP, Cunningham ET. Natural history and outcome of new AIDS-related cytomegalovirus retinitis diagnosed in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 231-233.
58. Zurlo JJ, O'Neill D, Polis MA et al. Lack of clinical utility of cytomegalovirus blood and urine cultures in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med 1993; 118: 12-17.
59. Edwards S, Grover D, Scott C et al. Cytomegalovirus viral load testing of blood using quantitative polymerase chain reaction in acutely unwell HIV-1 positive patients lacks diagnostic utility. Int J STD AIDS 2007; 18: 321-323.
60. Dieterich DT, Rahmin M. Cytomegalovirus colitis in AIDS: presentation in 44 patients and a review of the literature. J Acquir Immun Defic Syndr 1991; 4 (Suppl. 1): 29-35.
61. Mentec H, Leport C, Leport J et al. Cytomegalovirus colitis in HIV-1-infected patients: a prospective research in 55 patients. AIDS 1994; 8: 461-467.
62. Dieterich DT, Kotler DP, Busch DF et al. Ganciclovir treatment of cytomegalovirus colitis in AIDS: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter study. J Infect Dis 1993; 167: 278-282.
63. Siegal DS, Hamid N, Cunha BA. Cytomegalovirus colitis mimicking ischemic colitis in an immunocompetent host. Heart Lung 2005; 34: 291-294.
64. Blanshard C, Benhamou Y, Dohin E, Lernestedt JO, Gazzard BG, Katlama C. Treatment of AIDS-associated gastrointestinal cytomegalovirus infection with foscarnet and ganciclovir: a randomized comparison. J Infect Dis 1995; 172: 622-628.
65. Nelson MR, Connolly GM, Hawkins DA, Gazzard BG. Foscarnet in the treatment of cytomegalovirus infection of the esophagus and colon in patients with the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am J Gastroenterol 1991; 86: 876-881.
66. Flanigan T, Whalen C, Turner J et al. Cryptosporidium infection and CD4 counts. Ann Intern Med 1992; 116: 840-842.
67. McLauchlin J, Amar C, Pedraza-Diaz S, Nichols GL. Molecular epidemiological analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in the United Kingdom: results of genotyping Cryptosporidium spp. in 1, 705 fecal samples from humans and 105 fecal samples from livestock animals. J Clin Microbiol 2000; 38: 3984-3990.
68. Stark D, Fotedar R, van Hal S et al. Prevalence of enteric protozoa in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative men who have sex with men from Sydney, Australia. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2007; 76: 549-552.
69. Pitlik SD, Fainstein V, Garza D et al. Human cryptosporidiosis: spectrum of disease. Report of six cases and review of the literature. Arch Intern Med 1983; 143: 2269-2275.
70. Ducreux M, Buffet C, Lamy P et al. Diagnosis and prognosis of AIDS-related cholangitis. AIDS 1995; 9: 875-880.
71. Ignatius R, Lehmann M, Miksits K et al. A new acid-fast trichrome stain for the simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and microsporidial species in stool specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 446-449.
72. Garcia LS, Shimizu RY. Evaluation of nine immunoassay kits (enzyme immunoassay and immunofluorescence) for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum in human fecal specimens. J Clin Microbiol 1997; 35: 1526-1529.
73. Bialek R, Binder N, Dietz K, Joachim A, Knobloch J, Zelck UE. Comparison of fluorescence, antigen and PCR assays to detect Cryptosporidium parvum in fecal specimens. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2002; 43: 283-288.
74. Carr A, Marriott D, Field A, Vasak E, Cooper DA. Treatment of HIV-1-associated microsporidiosis and cryptosporidiosis with combination antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 1998; 351: 256-261.
75. Miao YM, Awad-El-Kariem FM, Franzen C et al. Eradication of cryptosporidia and microsporidia following successful antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2000; 25: 124-129.
76. Tzipori S, Rand W, Griffiths J, Widmer G, Crabb J. Evaluation of an animal model system for cryptosporidiosis: therapeutic efficacy of paromomycin and hyperimmune bovine colustrum-immunoglobulin. Clin Diag Lab Immunol 1994; 1: 450-463.
77. Abubakar I, Aliyu S, Arumugam C, Usman NK, Hunter PR. Treatment of cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised individuals: systematic review and meta-analysis. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2007; 63: 387-393.
78. Smith NH, Cron S, Valdez LM, Chappell CL, White AC Jr Combination drug therapy for cryptosporidiosis in AIDS. J Infect Dis 1998; 178: 900-903.
79. Fox LM, Saravolatz LD. Nitazoxanide: a new thiazolide antiparasitic agent. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 1173-1180.
80. Rossignol JF, Hidalgo H, Feregrino M et al. A double-'blind' placebo-controlled study of nitazoxanide in the treatment of cryptosporidial diarrhoea in AIDS patients in Mexico. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 1998; 92: 663-666.
81. Addiss DG, Pond RS, Remshak M, Juranek DD, Stokes S, Davis JP. Reduction of risk of watery diarrhea with point-of-use water filters during a massive outbreak of waterborne Cryptosporidium infection in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1993. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1996; 54: 549-553.
82. Mathis A, Weber R, Deplazes P. Zoonotic potential of the microsporidia. Clin Microbiol Rev 2005; 18: 423-445.
83. Didier ES. Microsporidiosis: an emerging and opportunistic infection in humans and animals. Acta Trop 2005; 94: 61-76.
84. Oldfield EC. Evaluation of chronic diarrhoea in patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. Rev Gastroenterol Disord 2002; 2: 176-188.
85. Weiss LM, Vossbrinck CR. Microsporidiosis: molecular and diagnostic aspects. Adv Parasitol 1998; 40: 351-395.
86. Curry A. Electron microscopy and the investigation of new infectious diseases. Int J Infect Dis 2003; 7: 251-257.
87. Maggi P, Larocca AM, Quarto M et al. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2000; 19: 213-217.
88. Sharpstone D, Rowbottom A, Francis N et al. Thalidomide: a novel therapy for microsporidiosis. Gastroenterology 1997; 112: 1823-1829.
89. Molina JM, Goguel J, Sarfati C et al. Trial of oral fumagillin for the treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis in patients with HIV infection. AIDS 2000; 14: 1341-1348.
90. Molina JM, Tourneur M, Sarfati C et al. Fumagillin treatment of intestinal microsporidiosis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1963-1969.
91. Dietrerich DT, Lew EA, Kotler DP, Poles MA, Orenstein JM. Treatment with albendazole for intestinal disease due to Enterocytozoon bieneusi in patients with AIDS. J Infect Dis 1994; 169: 178-183.
92. Molina JM, Chastang C, Goguel J et al. Albendazole for treatment and prophylaxis of microsporidiosis due to Encephalitozoon intestinalis in patients with AIDS: a randomized double-blind controlled trial. J Infect Dis 1998; 177: 1373-1377.
93. Babb RR. Sexually transmitted infections in homosexual men. Postgrad Med 1979; 65: 215-218.
94. Keystone JS, Keystone DL, Proctor EM. Intestinal parasitic infections in homosexual men: prevalence, symptoms and factors in transmission. Can Med Assoc J 1980; 123: 512-514.
95. Phillips SC, Mildvan D, William DC, Gelb AM, White MC. Sexual transmission of enteric protozoa and helminths in a venereal-disease-clinic population. N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 603-606.
96. Gardner TB, Hill DR. Treatment of giardiasis. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14: 114-128.
97. Farthing MJ. Treatment options for the eradication of intestinal protozoa. Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 2006; 3: 436-445.
98. Lewthwaite P, Gill GV, Hart CA, Beeching NJ. Gastrointestinal parasites in the immunocompromised. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2005; 18: 427-435.
99. Lean S, Pollok RC. Management of protozoa-related diarrhea in HIV infection. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2003; 1: 455-469.
100. Lowther SA, Dworkin MS, Hanson DL. Entamoeba histolytica/Entamoeba dispar infections in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2000; 30: 955-959.
101. Hung CC, Ji DD, Sun HY et al. Increased risk for Entamoeba histolytica infection and invasive amebiasis in HIV seropositive men who have sex with men in Taiwan. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2008; 2: e175.
102. Pape JW, Verdier RI, Boncy M, Boncy J, Johnson WD Jr Cyclospora infection in adults infected with HIV: clinical manifestations, treatment, and prophylaxis. Ann Intern Med 1994; 121: 654-657.
103. Sifuentes-Osornio J, Porras-Cortes G, Bendall RP, Morales-Villareal F, Reyes-Teran G, Ruiz-Palacios GM. Cyclospora cayetanensis infection in patients with and without AIDS: biliary disease as another clinical manifestation. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21: 1092-1097.
104. Verweij JJ, Laeijendecker D, Brienen EA, van Lieshout L, Polderman AM. Detection of Cyclospora cayetanensis in travellers returning from the tropics and subtropics using microscopy and real-time PCR. Int J Med Microbiol 2003; 293: 199-202.
105. Verdier RI, Fitzgerald DW, Johnson WD Jr, Pape JW. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole compared with ciprofloxacin for treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli and Cyclospora cayetanensis infection in HIV-infected patients: a randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 885-888.
106. Pape JW, Verdier RI, Johnson WD Jr Treatment and prophylaxis of Isospora belli infections in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. New Engl J Med 1989; 320: 1044-1047.
107. Sorvillo FJ, Leib LE, Seidel J, Kerndt P, Turner J, Ash LR. Epidemiology of isosporiasis among persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Los Angeles County. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1995; 53: 656-659.
108. Weiss LM, Perlman DC, Sherman J, Tanowitz H, Wittner M. Isospora belli infection: treatment with pyrimethamine. Ann Intern Med 1988; 109: 474-475.
109. Lim S, Katz K, Krajden S, Fuksa M, Keystone JS, Kain KC. Complicated and fatal strongyloides infection in Canadians: risk factors, diagnosis and management. CMAJ 2004; 171: 479-484.
110. Keiser PB, Nutman TB. Strongyloides stercoralis in the immunocompromised population. Clin Microbiol Rev 2004; 17: 208-217.
111. Concha R, Harrington W Jr, Rogers AI. Intestinal strongyloidiasis: recognition, management and determinants of outcome. J Clin Gastroenterol 2005; 39: 203-211.
112. Viney ME, Brown M, Omoding NE et al. Why does HIV infection not lead to disseminated strongyloidiasis? J Infect Dis 2004; 190: 2175-2180.
113. Currie BJ, McCarthy JS. Strongyloides stercoralis infection as a manifestation of immune restoration syndrome? Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 635.
114. Zaha O, Hirata T, Uchima N, Kinjo F, Saito A. Comparison of anthelmintic effects of two doses of ivermectin on intestinal strongyloidiasis in patients negative or positive for anti-HTLV-1 antibody. J Infect Chemother 2004; 10: 348-351.
115. Johnston FH, Morris PS, Speare R et al. Strongyloidiasis: a review of the evidence for Australian practitioners. Aust J Rural Health 2005; 13: 247-254.
116. Suputtamongkol Y, Kungpanichkul N, Silpasakorn S, Beeching NJ. Efficacy and safety of a single-dose veterinary preparation of ivermectin versus 7-day high-dose albendazole for chronic strongyloidiasis. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008; 31: 46-49.
117. Heath T, Riminton S, Garsia R, MacLeod C. Systemic strongyloidiasis complicating HIV: a promising response to ivermectin. Int J STD AIDS 1996; 7: 294-296.