Gastroparesis: Pathogenesis, diagnosis and management

Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 8, Issue 8, 2011, Pages 438-453

  Hasler, William L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN HOSPITALS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AZITHROMYCIN; BETHANECHOL; BOTULINUM TOXIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; DOMPERIDONE; ERYTHROMYCIN; METOCLOPRAMIDE; MIRTAZAPINE; PLACEBO; PYRIDOSTIGMINE; ULIMORELIN;

ABDOMINAL CRAMP; ABDOMINAL PAIN; ACUPUNCTURE; AGITATION; AMENORRHEA; ANASTOMOSIS LEAKAGE; ANASTOMOSIS STENOSIS; ARTICLE; BREATH ANALYSIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DYSTONIA; ELECTROSTIMULATION THERAPY; ENDOSCOPIC SURGERY; FATIGUE; GALACTORRHEA; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HUMAN; HYPERPROLACTINEMIA; HYPOTENSION; IDIOPATHIC DISEASE; INTESTINE OBSTRUCTION; NAUSEA; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOLOGIC ASSESSMENT; QT PROLONGATION; SIDE EFFECT; SLEEP DISORDER; STOMACH EMPTYING; STOMACH MOTILITY; STOMACH PARESIS; STOMACH SCINTISCANNING; SUDDEN DEATH; TARDIVE DYSKINESIA; TREATMENT OUTCOME; URINARY URGENCY; VOMITING; WHEEZING;

ANTIEMETICS; DIABETES COMPLICATIONS; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; FOOD HABITS; GASTROPARESIS; HUMANS; RADIONUCLIDE IMAGING; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 80051545519     PISSN: 17595045     EISSN: 17595053     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/nrgastro.2011.116     Document Type: Article

References (184)

1. Jung, H. K. et al. The incidence, prevalence, and outcomes of patients with gastroparesis in Olmsted County, Minnesota, from 1996 to 2006. Gastroenterology 136, 1225-1233 (2009).
2. Wang, Y. R., Fisher, R. S. & Parkman, H. P. Gastroparesis-related hospitalizations in the United States: trends, characteristics, and outcomes. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103, 313-322 (2008). (Pubitemid 351248745)
3. Hyett, B. et al. Delayed radionuclide gastric emptying studies predict morbidity in diabetics with symptoms of gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 137, 445-452 (2009).
4. Soykan, I., Sivri, B., Saroseik, I., Kiernan, B. & McCallum, R. W. Demography, clinical characteristics, psychological and abuse profiles, treatment, and long-term follow-up of patients with gastroparesis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 43, 2398-2404 (1998). (Pubitemid 28531310)
5. Cherian, D., Sachdeva, P., Fisher, R. S. & Parkman, H. P. Abdominal pain is a frequent symptom of gastroparesis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8, 676-681 (2010).
6. Hasler, W. L. et al. Bloating in gastroparesis: severity, impact, and associated factors. Am. J. Gastroenterol. doi:10.1038/ajg.2011.81.
7. Christensen, C. J., Johnson, W. D. & Abell, T. L. Patients with cyclic vomiting pattern and diabetic gastropathy have more migraines, abnormal electrogastrograms, and gastric emptying. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 43, 1076-1081 (2008).
8. Parkman, H. P. et al. Clinical features of idiopathic gastroparesis vary with sex, body mass, symptom onset, delay in gastric emptying, and gastroparesis severity. Gastroenterology 140, 101-115 (2011).
9. Parkman, H. P. et al. Dietary intake and nutritional deficiencies in patients with diabetic or idiopathic gastroparesis. Gastroenterology doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2011.04.045.
10. Lysy, J., Israeli, E., Strauss-Liviatan, N. & Goldin, E. Relationships between hypoglycaemia and gastric emptying abnormalities in insulin-treated diabetic patients. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18, 433-440 (2006). (Pubitemid 43742557)
11. Hewitt, A. N., Levine, M. S., Rubesin, S. E. & Laufer, I. Gastric bezoars: reassessment of clinical and radiographic findings in 19 patients. Br. J. Radiol. 82, 901-907 (2009).
12. Reddymasu, S. C. & McCallum, R. W. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in gastroparesis: are there any predictors? J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 44, e8-13 (2010).
13. Revicki, D. A. et al. Development and validation of a patient-assessed gastroparesis symptom severity measure: the Gastroparesis Cardinal Symptom Index. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 18, 141-150 (2003). (Pubitemid 36897991)
14. Revicki, D. A. et al. Development and content validity of a gastroparesis cardinal symptom index daily diary. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 30, 670-680 (2009).
15. De la Loge, C. et al. Cross-cultural development and validation of a self-administered questionnaire to assess quality of life in upper gastrointestinal disorders. Qual. Life Res. 13, 1751-1762 (2004).
16. Lobrano, A. et al. Postinfectious gastroparesis related to autonomic failure: a case report. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18, 162-167 (2006).
17. Gamenthaler, A., Moon, N., Lucero, S., Miroshnova, T. & Giron, J. A. Colitis and gastroparesis associated with syphilis in an HIV-infected person with an undetectable viral load. AIDS Reader 19, 230-232 (2009).
18. Tack, J. et al. Functional gastroduodenal disorders. Gastroenterology 130, 1466-1479 (2006).
19. Abell, T. L. et al. Treatment of gastroparesis: a multidisciplinary clinical review. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18, 263-283 (2006).
20. Hasler, W. L. et al. Importance of abdominal pain as a symptom in gastroparesis: relation to clinical factors, disease severity, quality of life, gastric retention, and medication use [abstract]. Gastroenterology 138, M2023 (2010).
21. Karamanolis, G., Caenepeel, P., Arts, J. & Tack, J. Determinants of symptom pattern in idiopathic severely delayed gastric emptying: gastric emptying rate or proximal stomach dysfunction? Gut 56, 29-36 (2007). (Pubitemid 46044885)
22. Hasler, W. L. et al. Differences in intragastric pH in diabetic vs. idiopathic gastroparesis: relation to degree of gastric retention. Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 294, G1384-G1391 (2008).
23. Parkman, H. P. et al. Inflammatory and autoimmune markers in diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis [abstract]. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 22 (Suppl. 1), 65 (2010).
24. Bytzer, P. et al. Prevalence of gastrointestinal symptoms associated with diabetes mellitus. Arch. Intern. Med. 161, 1989-1996 (2001).
25. Koch, K. L. et al. Diabetic gastroparesis: comparison of clinical features in patients with Type 2 (T2DM) and Type 1 (T1DM) diabetes mellitus [abstract]. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 104 (Suppl. 3), S56 (2009).
26. Eisenberg, B., Murata, G. H., Tzamaloukas, A. H., Zager, P. G. & Avasthi, P. S. Gastroparesis in diabetics on chronic dialysis: clinical and laboratory associations and predictive features. Nephron 70, 296-300 (1995).
27. Darwiche, G., Almér, L. O., Björgell, O., Cederholm, C. & Nilsson, P. Measurement of gastric emptying by standardized real-time ultrasonography in healthy subjects and diabetic patients. J. Ultrasound Med. 18, 673-682 (1999).
28. Mearin, F., Camilleri, M. & Malagelada, J.-R. Pyloric dysfunction in diabetics with recurrent nausea and vomiting. Gastroenterology 90, 1919-1925 (1986). (Pubitemid 16085599)
29. Camilleri, M. & Malagelada, J.-R. Abnormal intestinal motility in diabetics with the gastroparesis syndrome. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 14, 420-427 (1984). (Pubitemid 15223753)
30. Kumar, A., Attaluri, A., Hashmi, S., Schulze, K. S. & Rao, S. S. Visceral hypersensitivity and impaired accommodation in refractory diabetic gastroparesis. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 20, 635-642 (2008). (Pubitemid 351678620)
31. Rathmann, W., Enck, P., Frieling, T. & Gries, F. A. Visceral afferent neuropathy in diabetic gastroparesis. Diabetes Care 14, 1086-1089 (1991).
32. Punkkinen, J. et al. Upper abdominal symptoms in patients with Type 1 diabetes: unrelated to impairment in gastric emptying caused by autonomic neuropathy. Diabet. Med. 25, 570-577 (2008). (Pubitemid 351590890)
33. Jones, K. L. et al. A longitudinal study of gastric emptying and upper gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with diabetes mellitus. Am. J. Med. 113, 449-455 (2002). (Pubitemid 35335795)
34. Nohara, S. et al. Gastric emptying in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus and diabetes associated with mitochondrial DNA 3243 mutation using 13C-octanoic acid breath test. J. Diabetes Comp. 20, 295-301 (2006). (Pubitemid 44292529)
35. Horowitz, M. et al. Gastric and oesophageal emptying in patients with type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus. Diabetologia 32, 151-159 (1989). (Pubitemid 19117093)
36. Barnett, J. L. & Owyang, C. Serum glucose concentration as a modulator of interdigestive gastric motility. Gastroenterology 94, 739-744 (1988). (Pubitemid 18073537)
37. Fraser, R., Horowitz, M. & Dent, J. Hyperglycaemia stimulates pyloric motility in normal subjects. Gut 32, 475-478 (1991).
38. Hasler, W. L., Soudah, H. C., Dulai, G. & Owyang, C. Mediation of hyperglycemia-evoked gastric slow-wave dysrhythmias by endogenous prostaglandins. Gastroenterology 108, 727-736 (1995).
39. Jones, K. L. et al. Hyperglycemia attenuates the gastrokinetic effect of erythromycin and affects the perception of postprandial hunger in normal subjects. Diabetes Care 22, 339-344 (1999). (Pubitemid 29056932)
40. Russell, A. W. et al. The effect of acute hyperglycaemia on appetite and food intake in Type 1 diabetes mellitus. Diabet. Med. 18, 718-725 (2001). (Pubitemid 32955523)
41. Jones, K. L., Horowitz, M., Berry, M., Wishart, J. M. & Guha, S. Blood glucose concentration influences postprandial fullness in IDDM. Diabetes Care 20, 1141-1146 (1997). (Pubitemid 27274278)
42. Russo, A. et al. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia accelerates gastric emptying of solids and liquids in long-standing type 1 diabetes. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 90, 4489-4495 (2005). (Pubitemid 41159331)
43. Jackson, M. W., Gordon, T. P. & Waterman, S. A. Disruption of intestinal motility by a calcium channel-stimulating autoantibody in type 1 diabetes. Gastroenterology 126, 819-828 (2004). (Pubitemid 38298330)
44. Kraft, R. O., Fry, W. J. & DeWeese, M. S. Post-vagotomy gastric atony. Arch. Surg. 88, 865-874 (1964).
45. Trus, T. L. et al. Complications of laparoscopic paraesophageal hernia repair. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 1, 221-228 (1997). (Pubitemid 127432763)
46. Salameh, J. R., Schmieg, R. E., Runnels, J. M. & Abell, T. L. Refractory gastroparesis after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: surgical treatment with implantable pacemaker. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 11, 1669-1672 (2007).
47. Finley, F. J. et al. Gastrointestinal function following esophagectomy for malignancy. Am. J. Surg. 169, 471-475 (1995).
48. Welsch, T. et al. Evaluation of the International Study Group of Pancreatic Surgery definition of delayed gastric emptying after pancreatoduodenectomy in a high-volume centre. Br. J. Surg. 97, 1043-1050 (2010).
49. Bunch, T. J., Ellenbogen, K. A., Packer, D. L. & Asirvatham, S. J. Vagus nerve injury after posterior atrial radiofrequency ablation. Heart Rhythm 5, 1327-1330 (2008).
50. McCallum, R. W., Berkowitz, D. M. & Lerner, E. Gastric emptying in patients with gastroesophageal reflux. Gastroenterology 80, 285-291 (1981). (Pubitemid 11217521)
51. Leung, J. & Silverman, W. Diagnostic and therapeutic approach to pancreatic cancer-associated gastroparesis: literature review and our experience. Dig. Dis. Sci. 54, 401-405 (2009).
52. Balaban, D. H., Chen, J., Lin, Z., Tribble, C. G. & McCallum, R. W. Median arcuate ligament syndrome: a possible cause of idiopathic gastroparesis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92, 519-523 (1997). (Pubitemid 27108196)
53. Mittal, B. R. et al. Delayed gastric emptying in patients with caustic ingestion. Nuc. Med. Comm. 29, 782-785 (2008).
54. Wegener, M., Adamek, R. J., Wedmann, B., Jergas, M. & Altmeyer, P. Gastrointestinal transit through esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine in patients with progressive systemic sclerosis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 39, 2209-2215 (1994). (Pubitemid 24341636)
55. Bensen, E. S., Jaffe, K. M. & Tarr, P. I. Acute gastric dilatation in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: a case report and review of the literature. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 77, 512-514 (1996). (Pubitemid 26158177)
56. Gilat, T. & Spiro, H. M. Amyloidosis and the gut. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 13, 619-633 (1968).
57. Hejazi, R. A., Zhang, D. & McCallum, R. W. Gastroparesis, pseudoachalasia and impaired intestinal motility as paraneoplastic manifestations of small cell lung cancer. Am. J. Med. Sci. 338, 69-71 (2009).
58. van der Sijp, J. R. et al. Disturbed gastric and small bowel transit in severe idiopathic constipation. Dig. Dis. Sci. 38, 837-844 (1993). (Pubitemid 23144625)
59. Segal, J. L. Milne, N. & Brunnemann, S. R. Gastric emptying is impaired in patients with spinal cord injury. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 90, 466-470 (1995).
60. Soykan, I. & McCallum, R. W. Gastrointestinal involvement in neurologic disorders: Stiff-man and Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndromes. Am. J. Med. Sci. 313, 70-73 (1997). (Pubitemid 27036680)
61. Krausz, Y. et al. Scintigraphic evaluation of esophageal transit and gastric emptying in familial dysautonomia. Eur. J. Radiol. 18, 52-56 (1994). (Pubitemid 24066310)
62. Jeanneret, M. & Dawlatly, B. Severe hyperemesis gravidarum on a background of gastroparesis. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 29, 437-438 (2009).
63. Dubois, A., Gross, H. A., Ebert, M. H. & Castell, D. O. Altered gastric emptying and secretion in primary anorexia nervosa. Gastroenterology 77, 319-323 (1979). (Pubitemid 9208951)
64. Rigaud, D. et al. Delayed gastric emptying in anorexia nervosa is improved by completion of a renutrition program. Dig. Dis. Sci. 8, 919-925 (1988).
65. Kristinsson, J. O., Hopman, W. P., Oyen, W. J. & Drenth, J. P. Gastroparesis in patients with inactive Crohn's disease: a case series. BMC Gastroenterol. 7, 11 (2007).
66. Tobin, M. V., Fisken, R. A., Diggory, R. T. & Morris, A. I. Orocecal transit time in health and in thyroid disease. Gut 30, 26-29 (1989). (Pubitemid 19038567)
67. McNamee, P. T., Moore, G. W., McGeown, M.G., Doherty, C. C. & Collins, B. J. Gastric emptying in chronic renal failure. Br. Med. J. 291, 310-311 (1985). (Pubitemid 15045112)
68. Galati, J. S., Holdeman, K. P., Dalrymple, G. V., Harrison, K. A. & Quigley, E. M. Delayed gastric emptying of both the liquid and solid components of a meal in chronic liver disease. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 89, 708-711 (1994). (Pubitemid 24132051)
69. Chapman, M. et al. Antro-pyloro-duodenal motor responses to gastric and duodenal nutrient in critically ill patients. Gut 54, 1384-1390 (2005). (Pubitemid 41375193)
70. Nguyen, N. Q. et al. Feed intolerance in critical illness is associated with increased basal and nutrient-stimulated plasma cholecystokinin concentrations. Crit. Care Med. 35, 82-88 (2007). (Pubitemid 46035681)
71. Linnebjerg, H. et al. Effect of exenatide on gastric emptying and relationship to postprandial glycemia in type 2 diabetes. Regul. Pept. 151, 123-129 (2008).
72. Scott, A. M. et al. M. P. Effects of cigarette smoking on solid and liquid intragastric distribution and gastric emptying. Gastroenterology 104, 410-416 (1993). (Pubitemid 23033412)
73. Mushambi, M. C., Bailey, S. M., Trotter, T. N., Chadd, M. C. & Robotham, D. J. Effect of alcohol on gastric emptying in volunteers. Br. J. Anaesth. 71, 674-676 (1993). (Pubitemid 23330996)
74. To, T. & Coghlan, D. Gastroparesis associated with high-dose cytosine arabinoside. Intern. Med. J. 38, 143-144 (2008). (Pubitemid 351257960)
75. Bursztein-De Myttenaere, S. et al. Gastric emptying in humans: influence of different regimens of parenteral nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60, 244-248 (1994).
76. Harberson, J., Thomas, R. M., Harbison, S. P. & Parkman, H. P. Gastric neuromuscular pathology in gastroparesis: analysis of full-thickness antral biopsies. Dig. Dis. Sci. 55, 359-370 (2010).
77. Grover, M. et al. Cellular changes in diabetic and idiopathic gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 140, 1575-1585 (2011).
78. Selim, M. M. et al. Gastric mucosal nerve density: a biomarker for diabetic autonomic neuropathy? Neurology 75, 973-981 (2010).
79. House, A., Champion, M. C. & Chamberlain, M. National survey of radionuclide gastric emptying studies. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 11, 317-321 (1997). (Pubitemid 27263191)
80. Tougas, G. et al. Assessment of gastric emptying using a low fat meal: establishment of international control values. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 95, 1456-1462 (2000). (Pubitemid 30396302)
81. Abell, T. L. et al. Consensus recommendations for gastric emptying scintigraphy: a joint report of the American Neurogastroenterology and Motility Society and the Society of Nuclear Medicine. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103, 753-763 (2008). (Pubitemid 351405987)
82. Guo, J. P., Maurer, A. H., Fisher, R. S. & Parkman, H. P. Extending gastric emptying scintigraphy from two to four hours detects more patients with gastroparesis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 46, 24-29 (2001). (Pubitemid 32221834)
83. Kuo, B. et al. Comparison of gastric emptying of a nondigestible capsule to a radio-labelled meal in healthy and gastroparetic subjects. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 27, 186-196 (2008). (Pubitemid 350256610)
84. Kloetzer, L. et al. Motility of the antroduodenum in healthy and gastroparetics characterized by wireless motility capsule. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 22, 527-533 (2010).
85. Sarosiek, I. et al. The assessment of regional gut transit times in healthy controls and patients with gastroparesis using wireless motility technology. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 31, 313-322 (2010).
86. Perri, F. et al. 13C-octanoic acid breath test (OBT) with a new test meal (EXPIROGer): toward standardization for testing gastric emptying of solids. Dig. Liver Dis. 42, 549-553 (2010).
87. Szarka, L. A. et al. A stable isotope breath test with a standard meal for abnormal gastric emptying of solids in the clinic and in research. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6, 635-643 (2008).
88. Gentilcore, D., Hausken, T., Horowitz, M. & Jones, K. L. Measurements of gastric emptying of low- and high-nutrient liquids using 3D ultrasonography and scintigraphy in healthy subjects. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18, 1062-1068 (2006). (Pubitemid 44748270)
89. Stevens, J. E. et al. Measurement of gastric emptying of a high-nutrient liquid by 3D ultrasonography in diabetic gastroparesis. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 23, 220-225 (2011).
90. Levin, A. A., Levine, M. S., Rubesin, S. E. & Laufer, I. An 8-year review of barium studies in the diagnosis of gastroparesis. Clin. Radiol. 63, 407-414 (2008).
91. Chen, J. D., Lin, Z., Pan, J. & McCallum, R. W. Abnormal gastric myoelectrical activity and delayed gastric emptying in patients with symptoms suggestive of gastroparesis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 41, 1538-1545 (1996). (Pubitemid 26285736)
92. Tack, J., Caenepeel, P., Piessevaux, H., Cuomo, R. & Janssens, J. Assessment of meal induced gastric accommodation by a satiety drinking test in health and in severe functional dyspepsia. Gut 52, 1271-1277 (2003). (Pubitemid 37026458)
93. Horowitz, M. et al. Relationships between oesophageal transit and solid and liquid gastric emptying in diabetes mellitus. Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 18, 229-234 (1991).
94. Pasricha, P. J. et al. Characteristics of patients with chronic unexplained nausea and vomiting and normal gastric emptying. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. doi:10.1016/j.cgh.2011.03.003.
95. Cassilly, D. W. et al. Symptoms of gastroparesis: use of the gastroparesis cardinal symptom index in symptomatic patients referred for gastric emptying scintigraphy. Digestion 78, 144-151 (2008).
96. Khayyam, U. et al. Assessment of symptoms during gastric emptying scintigraphy to correlate symptoms to delayed gastric emptying. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 22, 539-545 (2010).
97. Bharucha, A. E., Camilleri, M., Forstrom, L. & Zinsmeister, A. R. Relationship between clinical features and gastric emptying disturbances in diabetes mellitus. Clin. Endocrinol. 70, 415-420 (2009).
98. Hasler, W. L., Kuo, B., Kloetzer, L., Gudleski, G. & Baker, J. R. Relation of wireless motility capsule gastric emptying times and gastrointestinal pressure parameters to symptoms of gastroparesis: is there a motor cause of symptoms [abstract]? Gastroenterology 140, Mo2047 (2011).
99. Galil, M. A., Critchley, M. & Mackie, C. R. Isotope gastric emptying tests in clinical practice: expectation, outcome, and utility. Gut 34, 916-919 (1993). (Pubitemid 23203111)
100. Ziessman, H. A., Okolo, P. I., Mullin, G. E. & Chander, A. Liquid gastric emptying is often abnormal when solid emptying is normal. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 43, 639-643 (2009).
101. Ziessman, H. A., Chander, A., Clarke, J. O., Ramos, A. & Wahl, R. L. The added diagnostic value of liquid gastric emptying compared with solid emptying alone. J. Nuc. Med. 50, 726-731 (2009).
102. Horowitz, M., Collins, P. J. & Shearman, D. J. Effect of increasing the caloric/osmotic content of the liquid component of a mixed solid and liquid meal on gastric emptying in obese subjects. Hum. Nutr. Clin. Nutr. 40, 51-56 (1986). (Pubitemid 16212579)
103. Hasler, W. L. et al. Psychological dysfunction is associated with symptom severity but not disease etiology or degree of gastric retention in patients with gastroparesis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 105, 2357-2367 (2010).
104. Uppalapati, S. S., Ramzan, Z., Fisher, R. S. & Parkman, H. P. Factors contributing to hospitalization for gastroparesis exacerbation. Dig. Dis. Sci. 54, 2404-2409 (2009).
105. Anaparthy, R., Pehlivanov, N., Grady, J., Yimei, H. & Pasricha, P. J. Gastroparesis and gastroparesis-like syndrome: response to therapy and its predictors. Dig. Dis. Sci. 54, 1003-1010 (2009).
106. Olausson, E. A. et al. Small particle size of a solid meal increases gastric emptying and late postprandial glycaemic response in diabetic subjects with gastroparesis. Diab. Res. Clin. Pract. 80, 231-237 (2008).
107. Sturm, A., Holtmann, G., Goebell, H. & Gerken, G. Prokinetics in patients with gastroparesis: a systematic analysis. Digestion 60, 422-427 (1999). (Pubitemid 29401770)
108. Parkman, H. P., Hasler, W. L. & Fisher, R. S. American Gastroenterological Association technical review on the diagnosis and treatment of gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 127, 1592-1622 (2004). (Pubitemid 39457783)
109. Pasricha, P. J., Pehlivanov, N., Sugumar, A. & Jankovic, J. Drug insight: from disturbed motility to disordered movement-a review of the clinical benefits and medicolegal risks of metoclopramide. Nat. Clin. Pract. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 3, 138-148 (2006).
110. Lin, H. C., Sanders, S. L., Gu, Y. G. & Doty, J. E. Erythromycin accelerates solid emptying at the expense of gastric sieving. Dig. Dis. Sci. 39, 124-128 (1994). (Pubitemid 24041719)
111. Ray, W. A. et al. Oral erythromycin and the risk of sudden death from cardiac causes. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 1089-1096 (2004).
112. Sugumar, A., Singh, A. & Pasricha, P. J. A systematic review of the efficacy of domperidone for the treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6, 726-733 (2008).
113. Jost, W. H. Gastrointestinal motility problems in patients with Parkinson's disease. Effects of antiparkinsonian treatment and guidelines for management. Drugs Aging 10, 249-258 (1997).
114. Strauss, S. M. et al. Non-cardiac QTc-prolonging drugs and the risk of sudden cardiac death. Eur. Heart J. 26, 2007-2012 (2005).
115. McCallum, R. W., Fink, S. M., Lerner, E. & Berkowitz, D. M. Effects of metoclopramide and bethanechol on delayed gastric emptying present in gastroesophageal reflux patients. Gastroenterology 84, 1573-1577 (1983). (Pubitemid 13092109)
116. Pasha, S. F., Lunsford, T. N. & Lennon, V. A. Autoimmune gastrointestinal dysmotility treated successfully with pyridostigmine. Gastroenterology 131, 1592-1596 (2006). (Pubitemid 44708932)
117. Moshiree, B., McDonald, R., Hou, W. & Toskes, P. P. Comparison of the effect of azithromycin versus erythromycin on antroduodenal pressure profiles of patients with chronic functional gastrointestinal pain and gastroparesis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 55, 675-683 (2010).
118. Sutera, L. et al. Azithromycin in an older woman with diabetic gastroparesis. Am. J. Ther. 15, 85-88 (2008). (Pubitemid 351161186)
119. Larson, J. M., Tavakkoli, A., Drane, W. E., Toskes, P. P. & Moshiree, B. Advantages of azithromycin over erythromycin in improving the gastric emptying half-time in adult patients with gastroparesis. J. Neurogastrointest. Motil. 16, 407-413 (2010).
120. De Maeyer, J. H., Lefebvre, R. A. & Schuurkes, J. A. 5-HT4 receptor agonists: similar but not the same. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 20, 99-112 (2008).
121. McCallum, R. W. & Cynshi, O. Clinical trial: effect of mitemcinal (a motilin agonist) on gastric emptying in patients with gastroparesis-a randomized, multicentre, placebo-controlled study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 26, 1121-1230 (2007).
122. McCallum, R. W. Cynshi, O. & US Investigative Team. Efficacy of mitemcinal, a motilin agonist, on gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with symptoms suggesting diabetic gastropathy: a randomized, multi-center, placebo-controlled trial. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 26, 107-116 (2007). (Pubitemid 46889836)
123. Seto, K. et al. Acotiamide hydrochloride (Z-338), a novel prokinetic agent, restores delayed gastric emptying and feeding inhibition induced by restraint stress in rats. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 20, 1051-1059 (2008).
124. Wo, J. M. et al. Randomised clinical trial: ghrelin agonist TZP-101 relieves gastroparesis associated with severe nausea and vomiting-randomised clinical study subset data. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 33, 679-688 (2011).
125. Lossos, I. S., Mevorach, D. & Oren, R. Thiethyperazine treatment of gastroparesis diabeticorum. Ann. Pharmacother. 26, 1016 (1992).
126. Chong, K. & Dhatariya, K. A case of severe, refractory diabetic gastroparesis managed by prolonged use of aprepitant. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 5, 285-288 (2009).
127. Sawhney, M. S., Prakash, C., Lustman, P. J. & Clouse, R. E. Tricyclic antidepressants for chronic vomiting in diabetic patients. Dig. Dis. Sci. 52, 418-424 (2007). (Pubitemid 46202816)
128. Kim, S. W. et al. Mirtazepine for severe gastroparesis unresponsive to conventional prokinetic treatment. Psychosomatics 47, 440-442 (2006).
129. von Arnim, U., Peitz, U., Vinson, B., Gundermann, K. J. & Malfertheiner, P. STW 5, a phytopharmacon for patients with functional dyspepsia: results of a multicenter, placebo-controlled double-blind study. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 102, 1068-1075 (2007).
130. Pilichiewicz, A. N. et al. Effects of Iberogast on proximal gastric volume, antropyloroduodenal motility and gastric emptying in healthy men. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 102, 1276-1283 (2007). (Pubitemid 46802008)
131. Braden, B., Caspary, W., Borner, N., Vinson, B. & Schneider, A. R. Clinical effects of STW 5 (iberogast) are not based on acceleration of gastric emptying in patients with functional dyspepsia and gastroparesis. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 21, 632-638 (2009).
132. Kim, K. H. et al. Acupuncture for symptomatic relief of gastroparesis in a diabetic haemodialysis patient. Acupunct. Med. 28, 101-103 (2010).
133. Gupta, P. & Rao, S. S. Attenuation of isolated pyloric pressure waves in gastroparesis in response to botulinum toxin injection: a case report. Gastrointest. Endo. 56, 770-772 (2002). (Pubitemid 36531726)
134. Ezzedine, D., Jit, R., Katz, N., Gopalswamy, M. & Bhutani, M. S. Pyloric injection of botulinum toxin for treatment of diabetic gastroparesis. Gastrointest. Endo. 55, 920-923 (2002). (Pubitemid 41127918)
135. Miller, L. S. et al. Treatment of idiopathic gastroparesis with injection of botulinum toxin into the pyloric sphincter muscle. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97, 1653-1660 (2002). (Pubitemid 34761385)
136. Lacy, B. E., Zayat, E. N., Crowell, M. D. & Schuster, M. M. Botulinum toxin for the treatment of gastroparesis: a preliminary report. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97, 1548-1552 (2002). (Pubitemid 34664808)
137. Lacy, B. E., Crowell, M. D., Schettler-Duncan, A., Mathis, C. & Pasricha, P. J. The treatment of diabetic gastroparesis with botulinum toxin injection of the pylorus. Diabetes Care 27, 2341-2347 (2004). (Pubitemid 39281383)
138. Arts, J. et al. Influence of intrapyloric botulinum toxin injection of gastric emptying and meal-related symptoms in gastroparesis patients. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24, 661-667 (2006). (Pubitemid 44127848)
139. Wiesel, P. H. et al. Botulinum toxin for refractory postoperative pyloric spasm. Endoscopy 29, 132 (1997). (Pubitemid 27168414)
140. Bromer, M. Q. et al. Endoscopic pyloric injection of botulinum toxin A for the treatment of refractory gastroparesis. Gastrointest. Endo. 61, 833-839 (2005). (Pubitemid 40779413)
141. Ben-Youssef, R. et al. Intrapyloric injection of botulinum toxin A for the treatment of persistent gastroparesis following successful pancreatic transplantation. Am. J. Transplant. 6, 214-218 (2006). (Pubitemid 43382222)
142. Kent, M. S. et al. A pilot study of botulinum toxin injection for the treatment of delayed gastric emptying following esophagectomy. Surg. Endo. 21, 754-757 (2007). (Pubitemid 46675518)
143. Mirbagheri, S. A. et al. Pyloric injection of botulinum toxin for the treatment of refractory GERD accompanied with gastroparesis: a preliminary report. Dig. Dis. Sci. 53, 2621-2626 (2008).
144. Coleski, R., Anderson, M. A. & Hasler, W. L. Factors associated with symptom response to pyloric injection of botulinum toxin in a large series of gastroparesis patients. Dig. Dis. Sci. 54, 2634-2642 (2009).
145. Arts, J. et al. Clinical trial: a randomized-controlled crossover study of intrapyloric injection of botulinum toxin in gastroparesis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 26, 1251-1258 (2007). (Pubitemid 47620416)
146. Friedenberg, F. K., Palit, A., Parkman, H. P., Hanlon, A. & Nelson, D. B. Botulinum toxin A for the treatment of delayed gastric emptying. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103, 416-423 (2008). (Pubitemid 351248749)
147. Sutcliffe, R. P. et al. Anastomotic strictures and delayed gastric emptying after esophagectomy: incidence, risk factors and management. Dis. Esoph. 21, 712-717 (2008).
148. Kim, C. H. & Nelson, D. K. Venting percutaneous gastrostomy in the treatment of refractory idiopathic gastroparesis. Gastrointest. Endo. 47, 67-70 (1998). (Pubitemid 28065309)
149. Colemont, L. J. & Camilleri, M. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction: diagnosis and management. Mayo Clin. Proc. 64, 60-70 (1989). (Pubitemid 19044498)
150. Noar, M. D. & Noar, E. Gastroparesis associated with gastroesophageal reflux disease and corresponding reflus symptoms may be corrected by radiofrequency ablation of the cardia and esophagogastric junction. Surg. Endo. 22, 2440-2444 (2008).
151. The GEMS Study Group. Long-term results of gastric stimulation four times higher than the slow wave frequency in patients with drug-refractory gastroparesis [abstract]. Gastroenterology 116, G4131 (1999).
152. Abell, T. L. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation in intractable symptomatic gastroparesis. Digestion 66, 204-212 (2002). (Pubitemid 36578770)
153. Abell, T. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis improves nutritional parameters at short, intermediate, and long-term follow-up. J. Parenter. Enteral. Nutr. 27, 277-281 (2003). (Pubitemid 36859461)
154. Forster, J. et al. Further experience with gastric stimulation to treat drug refractory gastroparesis. Am. J. Surg. 186, 690-695 (2003). (Pubitemid 37522108)
155. Lin, Z., McElhinney, C., Sarosiek, I., Forster, J. & McCallum, R. Chronic gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis reduces the use of prokinetic and/or antiemetic medications and the need for hospitalizations. Dig. Dis. Sci. 50, 1328-1334 (2005). (Pubitemid 41184764)
156. Lin, Z., Sarosiek, I., Forster, J. & McCallum, R. W. Symptom responses, long-term outcomes and adverse events beyond 3 years of high-frequency gastric electrical stimulation for gastroparesis. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 18, 18-27 (2006).
157. Anand, C. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation is safe and effective: a long-term study in patients with drug-refractory gastroparesis in three regional centers. Digestion 75, 83-89 (2007). (Pubitemid 47343953)
158. McCallum, R. W. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation improves outcomes of patients with gastroparesis for up to 10 years. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 9, 314-319 (2010).
159. Gourcerol, G., Leblanc, I., Leroi, A. M., Denis, P. & Ducrotte, P. Gastric electrical stimulation in medically refractory nausea and vomiting. Eur.
160. Cutts, T. F., Luo, J., Starkebaum, W., Rashed, H. & Abell, T. L. Is gastric electrical stimulation superior to standard pharmacologic therapy in improving GI symptoms, healthcare resources, and long-term health care benefits? Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 17, 35-43 (2005). (Pubitemid 40204010)
161. Maranki, J. L. et al. Predictive factors for clinical improvement with Enterra gastric electrical stimulation treatment for refractory gastroparesis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 53, 2072-2078 (2008).
162. Ayinala, S. et al. Temporary gastric electrical stimulation with orally or PEG-placed electrodes in patients with drug refractory gastroparesis. Gastrointest. Endo. 61, 455-461 (2005). (Pubitemid 40349047)
163. Abell, T. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation for medically refractory gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 125, 421-428 (2003). (Pubitemid 36929423)
164. Jones, M. P. Gastric electrical stimulation for refractory gastroparesis (letter). Gastroenterology. 126, 629-630 (2004). (Pubitemid 38182326)
165. McCallum, R. W. et al. Gastric electrical stimulation with Enterra therapy improves symptoms from diabetic gastroparesis in a prospective study. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 8, 947-954 (2010).
166. McCallum, R. W. et al. Enterra gastric electrical stimulation for idiopathic gastroparesis: results from a multicenter randomized study [abstract]. Gastroenterology 138, 1065 (2010).
167. Liu, J., Qiao, X. & Chen, J. D. Vagal afferent is involved in short-pulse gastric electrical stimulation in rats. Dig. Dis. Sci. 49, 729-737 (2004). (Pubitemid 38870196)
168. McCallum, R. W. et al. Mechanisms of symptomatic improvement after gastric electrical stimulation in gastroparetic patients. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 22, 161-167 (2010).
169. McCallum, R. W. et al. Gastric pacing improves emptying and symptoms in patients with gastroparesis. Gastroenterology 114, 456-461 (1998).
170. Mintchev, M. P., Sanmiguel, C. P., Otto, S. J. & Bowes, K. L. Microprocessor controlled movement of liquid gastric content using sequential neural electrical stimulation. Gut 43, 607-611 (1998). (Pubitemid 28520092)
171. Chen, J. D. et al. Efficiency and efficacy of multi-channel gastric electrical stimulation. Neurogastroenterol. Motil. 17, 878-882 (2005). (Pubitemid 41746526)
172. Sarosiek, I. et al. Effect of multi-point gastric electrical pacing (MGP) on symptoms, gastric emptying and electrical activity in diabetic gastroparesis [abstract]. Gastroenterology 136, A231 (2009).
173. Song, G. Q. et al. A novel method of 2-channel dual-pulse gastric electrical stimulation improves solid gastric emptying in dogs. Surgery 143, 72-78 (2008).
174. Sallam, H. S., Chen, J. D. & Pasricha, P. J. Feasibility of gastric electrical stimulation by percutaneous endoscopic transgastric electrodes. Gastrointest. Endo. 68, 754-759 (2008).
175. Nguyen, L. B., Parker, S. & Snape, W. J. Is pyloroplasty a surgical option in the treatment of refractory gastroparesis [abstract]? Gastroenterology 132, M1151 (2007).
176. Speicher, J. E., Thirlby, R. C., Burggraaf, J., Kelly, C. & Levasseur, S. Results of completion gastrectomies in 44 patients with postsurgical gastric atony. J. Gastrointest. Surg. 13, 874-880 (2009).
177. Watkins, P. J., Buxton-Thomas, M. S. & Howard, E. R. Long-term outcome after gastrectomy for intractable diabetic gastroparesis. Diabet. Med. 20, 58-63 (2003). (Pubitemid 36098866)
178. Van Sickle, K. R., McClusky, D. A., Swafford, V. A. & Smith, C. D. Delayed gastric emptying in patients undergoing antireflux surgery: analysis of a treatment algorithm. J. Laparoendo. Adv. Surg. Tech. 17, 7-11 (2007). (Pubitemid 46466658)
179. Fontana, R. J. & Barnett, J. L. Jejunostomy tube placement in refractory diabetic gastroparesis: a retrospective review. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 91, 2174-2178 (1996). (Pubitemid 26338974)
180. Clouse, R. E. & Lustman, P. J. Gastrointestinal symptoms in diabetic patients: lack of association with neuropathy. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 84, 868-872 (1989). (Pubitemid 19219758)
181. Ruhland, C. et al. Gastric dysmotility in patients with major depression. J. Affect. Dis. 110, 185-190 (2008).
182. Pasricha, P. J. et al. Changes in quality of life and symptoms in a large cohort of patients with gastroparesis followed prospectively for 48 weeks [abstract]. Gastroenterology 138, 1069 (2010).
183. Bityutskiy, L. P., Soykan, I. & McCallum, R. W. Viral gastroparesis: a subgroup of idiopathic gastroparesis-clinical characteristics and long-term outcomes. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92, 1501-1506 (1997).
184. Hasler, W. L. et al. Comparison of 48 week outcomes of post-infectious and non-infection related gastroparesis [abstract]. Gastroenterology 140, Tu1348 (2011).