An overview of patient safety and accreditation: A literature review study

Research Journal of Medical Sciences

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 200-223

  Al Awa, B ^a   de Wever, A ^b   Melot, C ^b   Devreux, I ^a  

^a KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^b UNIVERSITÉ LIBRE DE BRUXELLES   (Belgium)

Author keywords

Accreditation; Health care; Indicators; Patient safety; Perception; Saudi Arabia

Indexed keywords

ACCREDITATION; ADVERSE OUTCOME; ARTICLE; HEALTH CARE QUALITY; HEALTH CARE SYSTEM; HEALTH PROGRAM; HEALTH SERVICE; HEALTH SURVEY; HOSPITAL CARE; HUMAN; INFECTION; MEDICAL ERROR; MORTALITY; PATIENT SAFETY; SAUDI ARABIA;

EID: 79961083404     PISSN: 18159346     EISSN: 19936095     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3923/rjmsci.2011.200.223     Document Type: Article

References (131)

1. AHRQ, 2001. Evidence report/technology assessment No. 43. Making Health Care Safer: A Critical Analysis of Patient Safety Practices.
2. Accreditation Canada, 2009. The value and impact of accreditation in health care: A review of the literature. http://www.accreditation.ca.
3. Aiken, L., S. Clarke, R. B. Cheung and D. M. Sloane, 2003. Educational levels of hospital nurses and surgical patient mortality. J. Am. Med. Associat., 290: 1617-1623.
4. Aiken, L. H., 2005. The unfinished patient safety agenda. Web M M: Case and Commentary. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. http://www.webmm.ahrq.gov/perspective.aspx?perspectiveID=7.
5. Aiken, L. H., S. P. Clarke, D. Sloane, J. Sochalski and J. Silber, 2002. Hospital nurse staffing and patient mortality, nurse burnout and job dissatisfaction. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 288: 1987-1993.
6. Al-Haider, A. S. and T. T. Wan, 1991. Modeling organizational determinants of hospital mortality. Health Services Res., 26: 303-323.
7. Allison, J., C. Kiefe, N. Weissman, S. Person and M. Rouscupp et al., 2000. Relationship of hospital teaching status quality of care and mortality for medicare patients with acute MI. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 284: 1256-1262.
8. Andrews, L., C. Stocking, T. Krizek, L. Gottlief and C. Krizek et al., 1997. An alternative strategy for studying adverse events in medical care. Lancet, 349: 309-3113.
9. Ayanian, J. Z. and J. S. Weissman, 2002. Teaching hospitals and quality of care: A review of the literature. Milbank Quarterly, 80: 569-593.
10. Baker, C. M., P. L. Messmer, C. C. Gyurko, S. E. Domagala and F. M. Conly et al., 2002. Hospital ownership, performance and outcomes: Assessing the state-of-the-science. J. Nursing Administ., 30: 227-240.
11. Baldi, G., M. Burani, L. Ghirelli and S. De Pietri, 2000. Certification of an emergency department according to UNI EN ISO 9002 criteria. Eur. J. Emergency Med., 70: 61-66.
12. Baldwin, L. M., R. F. MacLehose, L. G. Hart, S. K. Beaver, N. Every and L. Chan, 2004. Quality of care for acute myocardial infarction in rural and urban US hospitals. J. Rural Health, 20: 99-108.
13. Barker, K. N., E. A. Flynn, G. A. Pepper, D. W. Bates and R. L. Mikeal, 2002. Medication errors observed in 36 health care facilities. Arch. Int. Med., 162: 1897-1903.
14. Battles, J. B. and R. J. Lilford, 2003. Organizing patient safety research to identify risks and hazards. Qual. Saf. Health Care, 12: ii2-ii7.
15. Beaulieu, N. D. and A. M. Epstein, 2002. National committee on quality assurance health-plan accreditation: Predictors, correlates of performance and market impact. Med. Care, 40: 325-337.
16. Blegen, M., C. Goode and L. Reed, 1998. Nurse staffing and patient outcomes. Nursing Res., 47: 43-50.
17. Braithwaite, J., J. Westbrook, M. Pawsey, D. Greenfield and J. Naylor et al., 2006. A prospective, multi-method, multi-disciplinary, multi-level, collaborative, social-organizational design for researching health sector accreditation. Biomed. Central Health Services Res., 6: 113-113.
18. Brennan, T. A., L. E. Hebert, N. M. Laird, A. Lawthers and K. E. Thorpe et al., 1991a. Hospital characteristics associated with adverse events and substandard care. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 265: 3265-3269.
19. Brennan, T. A., L. L. Leape, N. M. Laird, L. Hebert and A. R. Localio et al., 1991b. Incidence of adverse events and negligence in hospitalized patients: Results of the harvard medical practice study I. N. Engl. J. Med., 324: 370-376.
20. Buetow, S. A. and J. Wellingham, 2003. Accreditation of general practice: Challenges and lessons. Qual. Saf. HealthCare, 12: 129-135.
21. Chair, S. M. B., C. S. David, V. T. Farewell, G. Harvey, H. Tim and S. Peter, 2005. Performance indicators: Good, bad and ugly. J. R. Stat. Soc., 168: 1-27.
22. Chandrima, C. B., 2005. Accreditation of hospitals: An Overview. Express Healthcare Management.
23. Chen, J., S. S. Rathore, M. J. Radford and H. M. Krumholz, 2003. JCAHO accreditation and quality of care for acute myocardial infarction. Health Affairs, 22: 243-254.
24. Cho, S. H., S. Ketefian, V. H. Barkauskas and D. G. Smith, 2003. The effects of nurse staffing on adverse events, morbidity, mortality and medical costs. Nursing Res., 52: 71-79.
25. Clancy, C., 2003. Testimony on Patient Safety: Supporting a culture of continuous quality improvement hospitals and other health care organizations. Testimony of Carolyn M. Clancy, before the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations Committee on Government Affairs. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD., USA.
26. Cooper, J. B., D. M. Gaba, B. Liang, D. Woods and L. N. Blum, 2000. The national patient safety foundation agenda for research and development in patient safety. Medscape Gen. Med., 2: E38-E38.
27. Cunningham, W. E., D. M. Tisnado, H. H. Lui, T. T. Nakazono and D. M. Carlisle, 1999. The effect of hospital experience on mortality among patients hospitalized with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in California. Am. J. Med., 107: 137-143.
28. Devereaux, P. J., P. T. Choi, C. Lachetti, B. Weaver and H. J. Schunemann et al., 2002. A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies comparing mortality rates of private for-profit and private not-for profit hospitals. Can. Med. Assoc. J., 166: 1399-1406.
29. Devers, K. J., H. H. Pham and G. Liu, 2004. What is driving hospitals patient-safety efforts. Health Affairs, 5: 103-115.
30. Durbin, J., M. M. Hansen, R. Sinkowitz-Cochran and D. Cardo, 2006. Patient safety perceptions: A survey of Iowa physicians, pharmacists and nurses. Am. J. Infect. Control, 34: 25-30.
31. Edgman-Levitan, S. and P. D. Cleary, 1996. What information do consumers want and need. Health Affairs (Millwood), 151: 42-56.
32. El-Jardali, F., D. Jamal, H. Dimassi, W. Ammar and Victoria, 2008. The impact of hospital accreditation on quality of care: Perception of lebanese nurses. Int. J. Q. Healthcare, 20: 363-371.
33. Epstein, A. M., 1998. Rolling down the runway: The challenges ahead for quality report cards. J. Am. Med. Assco., 279: 1691-1691.
34. Estabrooks, C. A., W. K. Midodzi, G. G. Cummings, K. L. Ricker and P. Giovannetti, 2005. The impact of hospital nursing characteristics on 30-day mortality. Nursing Res., 54: 74-84.
35. Fleming, S. T., L. F. McMahon Jr., S. I. Desharnais, J. D. Chesney and R. T. Wroblewski, 1991. The measurement of mortality: A risk-adjusted variable time window approach. Med. Care, 29: 815-828.
36. Frankenfield, D. L., J. R. Sugarman, R. J. Presley, S. D. Helgerson and M. V. Rocco, 2000. Impact of facility size and profit status on intermediate outcomes in chronic dialysis patients. Am. J. Kidney Dis., 36: 318-326.
37. Glenn, L. L. and C. R. Jijon, 1999. Risk-adjusted in-hospital death rates for peer hospitals in rural and urban regions. J. Rural Health, 158: 94-107.
38. Gluck, J. C. and R. Z. Hassig, 2001. Raising the bar: The importance of hospital library standards in the continuing medical education accreditation process. Bull. Med. Library Assoc., 89: 272-276.
39. Grachek, M. K., 2003. Reducing risk and enhancing value through accreditation: Recent data indicate that accreditation has a quality impact that could be significant to risk management. Nursing Homes Long-Term Care Management, pp: 34-37.
40. Greenfield, D. and J. Braithwaite, 2008. Health sector accreditation research: A systematic review. Int. J. Quality Health Care, 20: 172-183.
41. Greenfield, D. and J. Braithwaite, 2009. Developing the evidence base for accreditation of healthcare organizations: A call for transparency and innovation. Quality Safety Health Care, 18: 162-163.
42. Greenfield, D., J. Travaglia, J. Braithwaite and M. Pawsey, 2007. An analysis of the health sector accreditation literature. Centre for Clinical Governance Research, UNSW., Sydney, Australia.
43. Greenfield, D., M. Pawsey and J. Braithwaite, 2008. Examinations of the relationships between accreditation and organizational and clinical performance. Centre for Clinical Governance research, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales.
44. Griffith, J. R., S. R. Knutzen and J. A. Alexander, 2002. Structural versus outcomes measures in hospitals: A comparison of Joint Commission and Medicare outcomes scores in hospitals. Quality Manage. Health Care, 10: 29-38.
45. Gustafson, D. H., C. J. Fiss Jr., J. C. Fry back, P. A. Simelser and M. E. Hiles, 1980. Measuring the quality of care in nursing homes: A pilot study in Wisconsin. Public Health Reports, 95: 336-343.
46. HER, 2006. Summary of HER summit break-out group activities: Research priorities, Pipeline issues and action items. Atlanta, Georgia.
47. Haakstad, J., 2001. Accreditation: The new quality assurance formula Some reflections as Norway is about to reform its quality assurance system. Quality Higher Educ., 7: 77-82.
48. Hall, R. N. L. M., 2002. Report cards: Relevance for nursing and patient care safety, International Council of Nurses. Int. Nursing Rev., 49: 168-177.
49. Hannan, E. L., A. L. Siu, D. Kumar, H. Kilburn Jr. and M. R. Chassin, 1995. The decline in coronary artery bypass graft mortality in New York State. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 273: 209-213.
50. Harris, L. and Associates, 1997. Public Opinion of Patient Safety Issues: Research Findings. National Patient Safety Foundation, Chicago, IL., USA., pp: 1-68.
51. Harvey, L., 2004. The power of accreditation: Views of academics. J. Higher Educ. Policy Manage., 26: 207-223.
52. Heaton, C., 2000. External peer review in Europe: An overview from the ExPeRT project. Int. J. Quality Health Care, 12: 177-182.
53. Heget, J. R., J. P. Bagian, C. Z. Lee and J. W. Gosbee, 2002. System innovation: Veterans health administration national center for patient safety. Joint Comm. J. Quality Improv., 28: 660-665.
54. IHSAB, 2007. Accreditation survey report and award decision. St Luke's Hospital Dublin.
55. IM, 1999. To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System. National Academy Press, Washington, DC., USA.
56. Institute of Medicine, 2001. Crossing the Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the Twenty-First Century. National Academy Press, Washington DC., USA.
57. Institute of Medicine, 2004. Keeping Patients safe: Transforming the Work Environment of Nurses. National Academy Press, Washington, DC., USA.
58. JCAHO, 2003. Facts about patient safety, http://www.jcaho.org.
59. JCI, 2003. Hospital management Asia 2003. Makati City, Philippines presentation by Karen Timmons, president and chief executive officer. Makati, Philippines.
60. Jencks, S. F., 1994. The government's role in hospital accountability for quality of care. Jt. Comm. J. Qual. Improv., 20: 364-369.
61. Jha, A. K., Z. Li, E. J. Orav and A. M. Epstein, 2005. Care in US hospitals: The hospital quality alliance program. N. Engl. J. Med., 353: 265-274.
62. Jones, D. P., 2002. Different Perspectives on Information About Educational Quality: Implications for the Role of Accreditation. CHEA., Washington, USA.
63. Keeler, E. B., L. V. Rubenstein, K. L. Kahn, D. Draper and E. R. Harrison et al, 1992. Hospital characteristics and quality of care. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 268: 1709-1714.
64. Kellogg, V. A. and D. S. Havens, 2003. Adverse events in acute care: An integrative literature review. Res. Nursing Health, 26: 398-408.
65. Kizer, K. W. and L. N. Blum, 2005. Safe Practices for Better Health Care. In, Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation. Vol. 1-4, AHRQ Publication, Rockville, MD.
66. Klazinga, N., 2000. Re-engineering trust: The adoption and adaption of four models for external quality assurance of health care services in western European health care systems. Int. J. Qual. Health Care, 12: 183-189.
67. Kohn, L. T., J. M. Corrigan and M. S. Donaldson, 1999. To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System. National Academy Press Washington, DC., USA.
68. Kovner, C. and P. J. Gergen, 1998. Nurse staffing levels and adverse events following surgery in US hospitals. J. Nursing Scholarship, 30: 315-321.
69. Kupersmith, J., 2005. Quality of care in teaching hospitals: A literature review. Acad. Med., 80: 458-466.
70. Lagasse, R. S., 2002. Anesthesia safety: Model or myth? A review of the published literature and analysis of current original data. Anesthesiology, 97: 1609-1617.
71. Leape, L. L., D. M. Berwick and D. W. Bates, 2002. What practices will most improve safety? Evidence-based medicine meets patient safety. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 288: 501-507.
72. Leape, L. L., T. A. Brennan, N. Laird, A. G. Lawthers and A. R Localio et al. 1991. The nature of adverse events in hospitalized patients-Results of Harvard medical practice study II. N. Engl. J. Med., 324: 377-384.
73. Leatherman, S., D. Berwick, D. Iles, L. S. Lewin, F. Davidoff, T. Nolan and M. Bisognano, 2003. The business case for quality: Case studies and an analysis. Health Affairs, 22: 17-30.
74. Lehman, L.S., A.L. Puopolo, S. Shaykevich and T.A. Brennan, 2005. Iatrogenic events resulting in intensive care admission: Frequency, cause and disclosure to patients and institutions. Am. J. Med., 118: 409-413.
75. Lewis, S., 2007. Accreditation in health care and education: The promise, the performance and lessons learned. Raising the bar on performance and sector revitalization. Access Consulting Ltd.
76. Lichting, L.K., R.A. Knauf and D.K. Milholland, 1999. impacts of nursing on acute care hospital outcomes. J. Nursing Administ., 29: 25-33.
77. Maas, M.L., M. Johnson and S. Moorehead, 1996. Classifying nursing-sensitive patient outcomes. J. Nuraing Scholarship., 28: 295-301.
78. Maynard, C., N.R. Every, M.K. Chapko and J.L. Ritchie, 2000. Outcomes of coronary angioplasty procedures performed in rural hospitals. Am. J. Med., 108: 710-713.
79. Mays, G.P., 2004. Can accreditation work in public health: Lessons from other service industries. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, Arkansas.
80. McCue, M., B.A. Mark and D.W. Harless, 2003. Nurse staffing, quality and financial performance. J. Health Care Finance, 29: 54-76.
81. McGillis, P.H., 2005. Quality work environment for nurse and patient safety. Nursing Leadership, 18: 89-91.
82. Merwin, E. and D. Thornlow, 2006. Methodologies used in nursing research designed to improve patient safety. Ann. Rev. Nursing Res., 24: 273-292.
83. Miller, M.R., P. Pronovost, M. Donithan, S. Zeger, C. Zhan, L. Morlock and G.S. Meyer, 2005. Relationship between performance measurement and accreditation: Implications for quality of care and patient safety. Am. J. Med. Quality, 20: 239-252.
84. Mitchell, P.H. and S.M. Shortell, 1997. Adverse outcomes and variations in organization of care delivery. Med. Care, 35: NS19-NS32.
85. Montagu, D., 2003. Accreditation and Other External Quality Assessment Systems for Healthcare: Review of Experience and Lessons Learned. DFID Health Systems Resource Centre, London.
86. NCQA, 2007. The state of health care quality 2007. National Committee for Quality Assurance, Washington, DC., USA.
87. Needleman, J., P. Buerhaus, S. Mattke, M. Stewart and K. Zelevinsky, 2002. Nurse-staffing levels and the quality of care in hospitals. N. Engl. J. Med., 346: 1715-1722.
88. Newhouse, R.P., 2006. Selecting measures for safety and quality improvement initiatives. J. Nursing Administ., 36: 109-113.
89. Nordgren, L.D., T. Johnson, M. Kirschbaum and M.L. Peterson, 2004. Medical errors: Excess hospital costs and lengths of stay. J. Health Care Quality, 26: 42-49.
90. Novaes, H., 2002. Report on the expert group meeting on hospital accreditation. WHO, Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, Cairo, Egypt.
91. Pagliarulo, M.A., 1986. Accreditation: Its nature, process and effective implementation. Phys. Therapy, 66: 114-118.
92. Peer, K.S. and J.S. Rakich, 2000. Accreditation and continuous quality improvement in athletic training education. J. Athletic Train., 35: 188-193.
93. Person, S.D., J.J. Allison, C.I. Kiefe, M.T. Weaver, O.D. Williams, R.M. Centor and N.W. Weissman, 2004. Nurse staffing and mortality for medicare patients with acute myocardial infarction. Med. Care, 42: 4-12.
94. Pollack, M.M., T.T. Cuerdon, K.M. Pate, U.E. Ruttimann, P.R. Getson and M. Levetown, 1994. Impact of quality of care factors on pediatric intensive care unit mortality. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 272: 941-946.
95. Pomey, M.P., P. Francois, A.P. Contandriopoulos, A. Tosh and D. Bertrand, 2005. Paradoxes of French accreditation. Quality Safety Health Care, 14: 51-55.
96. Rene, A., C. Bruneau, N. Abdelmoumene, G. Maguerez, V. Mounic and C. Gremion, 2006. Work Package 5: Improving Patient Safety Through External Auditing. The SIMPATIE., France.
97. Rogowski, J., J.D. Horbar, D. Staiger, M. Kenny, J. Carpenter and J. Geppert, 2004. Indirect vs direct hospital quality indicators for very low weight birth weight infants. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 291: 202-209.
98. Rojas, M., A. Silver, C. Llewellyn and L. Ranees, 2005. Study of Adverse Occurrences and Major Functional Impairment Following Surgery. In: Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation. Vol. 1-4, AHRQ Publication, Rockville, MD.
99. Romano, P. S., J.J. Geppert, S. Davies, M.R. Miller, A. Elixhauser and K.M. McDonald, 2003. A national profile of patient safety in U.S. hospitals. Health Affairs, 22: 154-166.
100. Rooney, A.L. and P.R. van Ostenberg, 1999. Licensure, accreditation and certification: Approaches to health services quality. Quality Assurance Methodology Refinement Series, Quality Assurance Project, Center for Human Services, http://www.qaproject.org/pubs/PDFs/accredmon.pdf.
101. Rosenthal, G.E., D.L. Harper, L.M. Quinn and G.S. Cooper, 1997. Severity-adjusted mortality and length of stay in teaching and nonteaching hospitals. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 278: 485-490.
102. Rosenthal, G.E., P.J. Hammer, L.E. Way, S.A. Shipley and D. Donar et al., 1998. Using hospital performance data in quality improvement: The Cleveland health quality choice experience. Joint Comm. J. Quality Improv., 24: 347-360.
103. Rothschild, J.M., D.W. Bates and L.L. Leape, 2000. Preventable medical injuries in older patients. Arch. Int. Med., 160: 2717-2728.
104. Salmon, J.W., J. Heavens, C. Lombard and P. Tavrow, 2003. The impact of accreditation on the quality of hospital care: KwaZulu-Natal Province, Republic of South Africa. Quality Assurance Project. http://www.qaproject.org/pubs/PDFs/SAfrAccredScreen.pdf.
105. Savitz, L.A., C.B. Jones and S. Bernard, 2005. Quality Indicators Sensitive to Nurse Staffing in Acute Care Settings. In: Advances in Patient Safety: From Research to Implementation. Vol. 1-4, AHRQ Publication, Rockville, MD.
106. Scanlon, D.P., C. Darby, E. Rolph and H.E. Doty, 2001. The role of performance measures for improving quality in managed care organizations. Health Service Res., 36: 619-641.
107. Schultz, M.A., G. van Servellen, M.S. Litwin, E.J. McLaughlin and G.C. Uman, 1999. Can hospital structural and financial characteristics explain variation in mortality caused by acute myocardial infarction. Applied Nursing Res., 12: 210-214.
108. Schwark and Thomas, 2005. Concept for a hospital accreditation system in Georgia. USAID, Georgia.
109. Shaw, C., 2001. External assessment of health care. Br. Med. J., 322: 851-854.
110. Shaw, C.D., 2003. Editorial: Evaluating accreditation Int. J. Quality Health Care, 15: 455-456.
111. Shojania K.G., B.W. Duncan, K.M. McDonald and R.M. Wachter, 2001. Making health care safer: A critical analysis of patient safety practices. Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 43, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. http://archive.ahrq.gov/clinic/ptsafety/.
112. Shojania, K.G., B.W. Duncan, K.M. McDonald and R.M. Wachter, 2002. Safe but sound: Patient safety meets evidence-based medicine. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 288: 508-513.
113. Silber, J.H., P. R Rosenbaum, J.S. Schwartz, R.N. Ross and S. Williams, 1995. Evaluation of the complication rates as a measure of quality of care in coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 274: 317-323.
114. Silber, J.H., P.R. Rosenbaum, M.E. Trudeau, W. Chen and X. Zhang et al., 2005. Changes in prognosis after the first postoperative complication. Med. Care, 43: 122-131.
115. Simons, R., S. Kasic, A. Kirkpatrick, L. Vertesi, T. Phang and L. Appleton, 2002. Relative importance of designation and accreditation of trauma centers during evolution of a regional trauma system. J. Trauma, 52: 827-834.
116. Stanton, M., 2004. Hospital Nurse Staffing and Quality of Care. AHRQ., Rockville, MD.
117. Stone, P.W., C. Mooney-Kane, E.L. Larson, T. Horan, L.G. Glance, J. Zwanziger and A.W. Dick, 2007. Nurse working conditions and patient safety outcomes. Med. Care, 46: 571-578.
118. Sutherland, K. and S. Leatherman, 2006. Regulation and Quality Improvement: A Review of the Evidence. Quest for Quality and Improved Performance. The Health Foundation, London, UK.
119. Thomas, E.J. and T.A. Brennan, 2000. Incidence and types of preventable adverse events in elderly patients: Population based review of medical records. Br. Med. J., 320: 741-744.
120. Thornlow, D.K. and G.J. Stukenborg, 2006. The association between hospital characteristics and rates of preventable complications and adverse events. Med. Care, 44: 265-269.
121. Thornlow, D.K., 2007. The relationship of hospital systems and utilization of patient safety practices to patient outcomes. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Virginia.
122. Touati, N. and M.P. Pomey, 2009. Accreditation at crossroads: Are we on the right direction. Health Policy, 90: 156-165.
123. URAC, 2003. Patient safety capabilities of utilization management programs. Quality through Accreditation.
124. Viswanathan, H.N. and J.W. Salmon, 2000. Accrediting organizations and quality improvement. Am. J. Manage. Care, 6: 1117-1130.
125. WHO, 2003. Quality and Accreditation in Health Care Services: A Global Review. World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland.
126. Walsh, K., 1995. Evaluating Clinical Audit: Past Lessons, Future Directions. Royal Society of Medicine, London, UK.
127. Werner, R.M. and D.A. Asch, 2005. The unintended consequences of publicly reporting quality information. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 293: 1239-1244.
128. Yuan, Z., G.S. Cooper, D. Einstadter, R.D. Cebul and A. A. Rimm, 2000. The association between hospital type and mortality and length of stay: A study of 16.9 million hospitalized medicare beneficiaries. Med. Care, 38: 231-245.
129. Zhan, C. and M. Miller, 2003a. Administrative data based patient safely research: A critical review. Quality sssSafety Health Care, 2: ii58-ii63.
130. Zhan, C. and M.R. Miller, 2003b. Excess length of stay, charges and mortality attributable to medical injuries during hospitalization. J. Am. Med. Assoc., 290: 1868-1874.
131. Zhan, C., E. Kelley, H.P. Yang, M. Keyes, J. Battles, R.J. Boroťkanics and D. Stiyer, 2005. Assessing patient safety in the United States: Challenges and Opportunities. Med. Care, 43: 142-147.