The real water consumption behind drinking water: The case of Italy

Journal of Environmental Management

Volumn 92, Issue 10, 2011, Pages 2611-2618

  Niccolucci, V ^a   Botto, S ^a   Rugani, B ^a   Nicolardi, V ^a   Bastianoni, S ^a   Gaggi, C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SIENA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Bottled water; Tap water; Virtual water content; Water consumption; Water footprint

Indexed keywords

INTERNATIONAL TRADE; INVESTMENTS; POTABLE WATER; WATER SUPPLY;

BOTTLED DRINKING WATERS; BOTTLED WATER; GLOBAL MARKET; HUMAN HEALTH; PER CAPITA; TAP WATER; VIRTUAL WATER; VIRTUAL WATER CONTENT; WATER CONSUMPTION; WATER FOOTPRINT;

COOLING WATER;

COOLING WATER; DRINKING WATER; FRESH WATER; MINERAL WATER; POLYETHYLENE TEREPHTHALATE; TAP WATER;

COOLING; DRINKING WATER; PIPELINE; PUBLIC HEALTH; VOLUME; WATER AVAILABILITY; WATER ECONOMICS; WATER MANAGEMENT; WATER SUPPLY; WATER USE;

ARTICLE; COMPARATIVE STUDY; FLUID INTAKE; HUMAN; ITALY; MATHEMATICAL COMPUTING; PLASTIC BOTTLE; WATER FOOTPRINT;

ITALY; SIENA [TUSCANY]; TUSCANY;

EID: 79960838499     PISSN: 03014797     EISSN: 10958630     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.05.033     Document Type: Article

References (56)

1. AATO 6 Piano d'ambito. Document in Italian 2008, "Ombrone", Available at:, Last access: June, 23, 2010. http://www.ato6acqua.toscana.it.
2. ANEA Bluebook 2008. I dati sul servizio idrico integrato in Italia 2008, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.associazioneanea.it/documenti/rapporti/blue-book-i-dati-sul-servizio-idrico-integrato.
3. Alcamo J., Döll P., Henrichs T., Kaspar F., Lehner B., Rösch T., Siebert S. Development and testing of the WaterGAP 2 global model of water use and availability. Hydrological Sciences 2003, 48(3):317-337.
4. Aldaya M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. The Water Needed to Have Italians Eat Pasta and Pizza. UNESCO-IHE Value of Water Research Report Series No. 36 2009, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://report36-waterfootprint-pasta-pizza.pdf.
5. Aldaya M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. The water needed for Italians to eat pasta and pizza. Agricultural Systems 2010, 103(6):351-360.
6. Allan J.A. Virtual water: a strategic resource, global solutions to regional deficits. Groundwater 1998, 36(4):545-546.
7. Allan J.A. Virtual water - the water, food and trade nexus: useful concept or misleading metaphor?. Water International 2003, 28(1):57-64.
8. Baldo G.L., Marino M., Rossi S. Analisi del ciclo di vita LCA 2008, Edizioni Ambiente, Milano, Italy, pp. 268.
9. Botto S., Niccolucci V., Rugani B., Nicolardi V., Bastianoni S., Gaggi C. Towards lower Carbon Footprint patterns of consumption: the case of drinking water in Italy. Environmental Science and Policy 2011, 14:388-395.
10. Boustead I. Eco-profiles of the European Plastics Industry. Reports for Plastics Europe 2005, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://lca.plasticseurope.org/index.htm.
11. Bousted I., Hancock G.F. Handbook of Industrial Energy Analysis 1979, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 745 pp.
12. CEC, 1998. European community environmental legislation: 1967-1987, Document number XI/989/87, Directorate-General for Environment, Consumer Protection and Nuclear Safety, Commission of European Comminities, Brussels, Belgium.
13. Chapagain A.K., Hoekstra A.Y. Water Footprints of Nations. Value of Water Research Report Series 2004, vol. 16. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.waterfootprint.org.
14. Chapagain A.K., Hoekstra A.Y. The water footprint of coffee and tea consumption in the Netherlands. Ecological Economics 2007, 64(1):109-118.
15. Chapagain A.K., Hoekstra A.Y. The blue, green and grey water footprint of rice from production and consumption perspectives. Ecological Economics 2011, 70(4):749-758.
16. Chapagain A.K., Orr S. An improved water footprint methodology linking global consumption to local water resources: a case of Spanish tomatoes. Journal of Environmental Management 2009, 90:1219-1228.
17. Chapagain A.K., Hoekstra A.Y., Savenije H.H.G., Gautam R. The water footprint of cotton consumption: an assessment of the impact of worldwide consumption of cotton products on the water resources in the cotton producing countries. Ecological Economics 2006, 60(1):186-203.
18. Ciafani S., Zampetti G., Lisi I., Buonauro G. Un paese in bottiglia. Document in Italian 2008, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.legambiente.eu/documenti/2008/0320_dossier_un_paese_in_bottiglia/dossier_un_paese_in_bottiglia.pdf.
19. Cidu R., Frau F., Tore P. Drinking water quality: Comparing inorganic components in bottled water and Italian tap water. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 2011, 24(2):184-193.
20. Doria M.F. Bottled water versus tap water: understanding consumers' preference. Journal of Water and Health 2006, 4(2):271-276.
21. EDIP Environmental Design of Industrial Products, Danish Database 1997, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.lca-center.dk/cms/site.aspx?p=728.
22. ELCD European reference life cycle core database, version II 2009, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://lca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/lcainfohub/datasetArea.vm.
23. Ercin A.E., Aldaya M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. A pilot in corporate water footprint accounting and impact assessment: The water footprint of a sugar-containing carbonated beverage. Report Series No. 39 2009, UNESCO-IHE Value of Water Research, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.waterfootprint.org/Reports/Report39-WaterFootprintCarbonatedBeverage.pdf.
24. Ercin A.E., Aldaya M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. Corporate water footprint accounting and impact assessment: the case of the water footprint of a sugar-containing carbonated beverage. Water Resource Management 2011, 25:721-741.
25. European Commission Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Glass Manufacturing Industry (Table 3.6, P.76) 2001, Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), Directorate-General JRG Joint Research Centre, Institute for Prospective Technological Studies.
26. IBWA Beverage Marketing's 2008 Market Report Findings 2008, International Bottled Water Association, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.bottledwater.org/.
27. IBWA Bottled Water Reporter 2010, International Bottled Water Association, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.bottledwater.org/.
28. FEFCO (European Federation of Corrugated Board Manufacturers) European Database for Corrugated Board - Life Cycle Studies 2006, Available at:, FEFCO, Brussels, Belgium, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.fefco.org/fileadmin/fefco_files/Publications/Other_Publications/lca2006.pdf.
29. Ferrier C. Bottled water: understanding a social phenomenon. Ambio 2001, 30(1):118-119.
30. Freire F., Thore S., Ferrao P. Life cycle activity analysis: logistics and environmental policies for bottled water in Portugal. OR Spektrum 2001, 23:159-182.
31. Galan-del-Castillo E., Velazquez E. From water to energy: the virtual water content and water footprint of biofuel consumption in Spain. Energy Policy 2010, 38(3):1345-1352.
32. Galloway J.N., Burke M., Bradford G.E., Naylor R., Falcon W., Chapagain A.K., Gaskell J.C., McCullough E., Mooney H.A., Oleson K.L.L., Steinfeld H., Wassenaar T., Smil V. International trade in meat: the tip of the pork chop. AMBIO 2007, 36(8):622-629.
33. Gerbens-Leenes P.W., Hoekstra A.Y., van der Meer T. The water footprint of energy from biomass: a quantitative assessment and consequences of an increasing share of bio-energy in energy supply. Ecological Economics 2009, 68(4):1052-1060.
34. The World's Water 2006-2007: The Biennal Report on Freshwater Resources 2006, 128. Island Press, Washington D.C. P. Gleick (Ed.).
35. Gollier C., Jullien B., Treich N. Scientific progress and irreversibility: an economic interpretation of the 'precautionary principle'. Journal of Public Economics 2000, 75(2):229-253. 10.1016/S0047-2727(99)00052-3.
36. Hoekstra A.Y., Chapagain A.K. Globalization of Water. Sharing the Planet's Freshwater Resources 2008, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK, pp.232.
37. Hoekstra A.Y., Hung P.Q. Virtual Water Trade: A Quantification of Virtual Water Flows between Nations in Relation to International Crop Trade. Value of Water Research Report Series 2002, vol. 11. UNESCO-IHE, Delft, the Netherlands, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://www.waterfootprint.org.
38. Hoekstra A.Y., Chapagain A.K., Aldaya M.M., Mekonnen M.M. The Water Footprint Assessment Manual: Setting the Global Standard 2011, Earthscan, London, UK.
39. ISPRA Rapporto Rifiuti 2008. Document in Italian 2008, Available at:, Last February, 17, 2011. http://www.apat.gov.it/site/it-IT/APAT/Pubblicazioni/Rapporto_rifiuti/Documento/rapporto_rfi08.html.
40. ISTAT Industrial Production Index 2010, Available in Italian at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://dati.istat.it.
41. ISTAT Final Consumption Expenditure of Households 1975-2009 2011, Last access: January, 21, 2011. http://dati.istat.it.
42. JCR ILCD Handbook - General Guide on LCA - Detailed Guidance 2010, Available at:, Last access: February, 17, 2011. http://lct.jrc.ec.europa.eu/pdf-directory/ILCD-Handbook-General-guide-for-LCA-DETAIL-online-12March2010.pdf.
43. King C.W., Webber M.E. Water intensity of transportation. Environmental Science and Technology 2008, 42(21):7866-7872.
44. Pfister S., Koehler A., Hellweg S. Assessing the environmental impacts of freshwater consumption in LCA. Environmental Science and Technology 2009, 43(11):4098-4104.
45. Ridoutt B.G., Juliano P., Sanguansri P., Sellahewa J. The water footprint of food waste: case study of fresh mango in Australia. Journal of Cleaner Production 2010, 18(16-17):1714-1721.
46. Ridoutt B.G., Williams S.R.O., Baud S., Fraval S., Marks N. The water footprint of dairy products: case study involving skim milk powder. Journal of Dairy Science 2010, 93(11):5114-5117.
47. SETAC Guidelines for Life-Cycle Assessment: A Code of Practice 1993, Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, Brussels, Belgium.
48. Spielmann M., Bauer C., Dones R., Tuchschmid M. Transport Services. Ecoinvent Report No.14 2007, Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
49. UNEP/GRID-Arendal Vital Water Graphics - 2nd Edition 2008, United Nation Environment Programme, Available at:. http://www.grida.no/publication/vg/water2/.
50. van Oel P.R., Mekonnen M.M., Hoekstra A.Y. The external water footprint of the Netherlands: geographically-explicit quantification and impact assessment. Ecological Economics 2009, 69(1):82-92.
51. Velázquez E. Water trade in Andalusia. Virtual water: an alternative way to manage water use. Ecological Economics 2007, 63:201-208.
52. Verma S., Kampman D.A., van der Zaag P., Hoekstra A.Y. Going against the flow: a critical analysis of inter-state virtual water trade in the context of India's National River Linking Program. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C 2008, 34:261-269.
53. Vink E.T.H., Rábago K.R., Glassner D.A., Gruber P.R. Applications of life cycle assessment to natureworks™ polylactide (PLA) production. Polymer Degradation and Stability 2003, 80:403-419.
54. Yu Y., Hubacek K., Feng K., Guan D. Assessing regional and global water footprints for the UK. Ecological Economics 2010, 69(5):1140-1147.
55. Zhao X., Chen B., Yang Z.F. National water footprint in an input-output framework-a case study of China 2002. Ecological Modelling 2009, 220:245-253.
56. Şen Z., Altunkaynak A. Fuzzy system modelling of drinking water consumption prediction. Expert System with Applications 2009, 36:11745-11752.