Soft constitutional law in nonliberal Asian constitutional democracies

International Journal of Constitutional Law

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2010, Pages 766-799

  Thio, Li Ann ^a  

^a NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79960821172     PISSN: 14742640     EISSN: 14742659     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/icon/mor001     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Ruth Gavison, What belongs in a Constitution?, 13 Constitutional Political Economy 89, 97 (2002).
2. S. E. Finer, Five Constitutions: Contrasts and Comparisons 15 (1979).
3. Li-ann Thio, Beyond the Four Walls in an Age of Transnational Judicial Conversations: Civil Liberties, Rights Theories and Constitutional Adjudication in Malaysia and Singapore, 19 Colum. J. Asian L. 428 (2005-2006).
4. 5 U.S. (1 Cranch) 137 (1803).
5. E.g., a government ban on wearing Muslim headscarf in primary school was never litigated: Thio Li-ann, Recent Constitutional Developments Sing J.L.S. 328, 355-366 (2002).
6. There is, arguably, in the U.S. a constitution outside the Constitution "written down in statutes and regulations," indicating the "pervasive" role of ordinary law in "constitutional ordering": Ernest Young, The Constitution Outside the Constitution, 117 Yale L.J. 408, 415 (2007).
7. A small-c constitution relates to rules serving a constitutional function not found in the constitutional text, such as statutory electoral laws: Anthony King, Does the United Kingdom still have a Constitution? (2001).
8. Jacob Gersen & Eric Posner, Soft Law: Lessons from Congressional Practice, 61 Stan. L. Rev. 573 (2008).
9. Fareed Zakaria, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad 91 (2003).
10. Matthew Palmer, Using Constitutional Realism to Identify the Complete Constitution: Lessons from an Unwritten Constitution 54 Am. j. Comp. L. 587, 589 (2006).
11. Matthew Palmer, Constitutional realism about constitutional protection: Indigenous Rights under a Judicialized and a Politicized Constitution, 29 Dalhousie L.J. 1, 5-6 (2007).
12. J.A.G. Griffiths, The Political Constitution, 42 Mod.l.r. 1 (1979).
13. Namely, a fundamental law that generates judicially enforceable limits on the legislature.
14. Karl Llewellyn, The Constitution as an Institution, 34 Colum. L. Rev. 1 (1934).
15. Brian Z. Tamanaha, Realistic Socio-Legal Theory: Pragmatism and a Social Theory of Law 128 (1999).
16. Christine Chinkin, The Challenge of Soft Law, 38 ICLQ 850 (1989).
17. Anna DiRobilant, Genealogies of Soft Law, 54 Am. J. Comp. L. 499, 499 (2006).
18. Lines International Holding (S) Pte Ltd v Singapore Tourist Promotion Board [1997] 1 S.L.R.(R) 52.
19. Niklas Luhmann, The Differentiation of Society 82 (1985).
20. E.g., Wellens & Borchardt, Soft Law in European Community Law, 14 European L.R. 267 (1989).
21. Thio Li-ann, Constitutional 'Soft' Law and the Management of Religious Liberty and Order: The 2003 Declaration on Religious Harmony, Sing J.L.S. 414. 434 (2004).
22. For present purposes, ambiguously worded statutes, which are soft in the sense of containing indeterminate obligations, are excluded from the ambit of SCL, where the ability to guide behavior is a defining feature.
23. Karl Llewellyn, A Realistic Jurisprudence-The Next Step, in Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory: An Anthology 22, 34 (Dennis Patterson ed., 2003) (discussing administrative action as law).
24. This would exclude judicial recommendations to executive bodies couched as warning or advice: see Tom Ginsburg, Confucian Constitutionalism? The Emergence of Constitutional Review in Korea and Taiwan, 27 Law & Social Inquiry 763, 780 (2002).
25. This excludes nonreviewable procedural rules regulating government agencies, e.g., Parliamentary Standing Orders, which other government bodies do not regard as binding law.
26. Attorney-general opinions as prima facie authoritative expositions on the law are not SCL as these may be judicially challenged.
27. Aileen McHarg, Reforming the United Kingdom Constitution: Law, Convention, Soft Law, 71 Modern L.R. 853, 861 (2008).
28. A.V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution 24 (10th ed. 1959).
29. K. C. Wheare, Modern Constitutions 1 (1951).
30. B. Hough, Conventions and Democracy, 29 Anglo-Am. L. Rev. 368, 370 (2000).
31. Joseph Jaconelli, The nature of constitutional convention, 19 Legal Studies 24, 38-39 (1998/1999).
32. Sir Ivor Jennings, Cabinet Government 2 (3rd ed., 1959).
33. Jennings identified three conditions constitutional conventions must satisfy: (1) the existence of precedents; (2) a belief by actors that a rule is binding; (3) a sound normative basis.
34. Colin Scott, Regulating Constitutions, in Regulating Law, 236 (Parker et al. eds., 2004).
35. The Changing Constitution, xv (Jeffery Jowell & Dawn Oliver eds., 5th ed., 2004).
36. E.g., under the Sewel Convention, originating from a House of Lord statement made during the passage of the Scotland Bill, Parliament will generally refrain from legislating on matters devolved to the Scottish Parliament: HL Deb vol. 592 col. 791 12 July 1998. Munro argues it should not be called a convention in the absence of testing: Thoughts on the Sewel Convention 2003 SLT (News) 194.
37. Richard Rawlings, Concordats of the Community, 116 L.Q.R. 257 (2000).
38. Johanne Poirier, The Functions of Intergovernmental Agreements: Post-Devolution Concordats in a Comparative Perspective 3 (The Constitution Unit, University College London, 2001): http://www.ucl.ac.uk/spp/publications/unit-publications/75.pdf.
39. Cm 7170 (London: TSO, July 2007).
40. Only exceptionally are constitutional conventions "the subject of verbal or written formulation," which records rather than creates convention.
41. Joseph Jaconelli, Constitutional Conventions, 64 Cambridge L.J. 149, 169-170 (2005).
42. This effectively operates as the substantive commitment "that displaces rather than tolerates its predecessors.".
43. Graham Walker, The Idea of Nonliberal Constitutionalism, in Ethnicity and Group Rights 152, 170 (Ian Shapiro & Will Kymlicka eds., 1997).
44. Samuel P. Huntington, Political Order in Changing Societies 7-8 (1968).
45. Both countries have supreme constitutions and justiciable constitutional rights: art. 4, Constitution of the Republic of Singapore; art. 4, Federal Constitution of Malaysia.
46. Reproduced as an annex to Andrew Harding, The Rukunegara Amendments of 1971, in Constitutional Landmarks in Malaysia, 115, 130-133 (Andrew Harding and HP Lee eds., 2007).
47. It was originally published as Government of Malaysia, Rukunegara (1970).
48. Courts have referenced the Rukunegara to underscore principle rather than formulate arguments, e.g., Hossain v Public Prosecutor [2007] 7 M.L.J. 454 (to uphold justice in the spirit of the Constitution and Rukunegara); Ritz Hotel Casino Ltd v Datuk Seri Osu Haji Sukam [2005] 6 M.L.J. 760 at [10] (referring to "Belief in God" as part of the Rukunegara and public policy, citing from the Koran, Hindu Scripture, Bible, and Buddhist philosophy).
49. Para. 3, Shared Values white paper (Cmd 1 of 1991).
50. J. B. Jeyaretnam v. Lee Kuan Yew [1992] 2 S.L.R. 310.
51. Goh Chok Tong v. Chee Soon Juan (No. 2), [2005] 1 S.L.R. 573, 581.
52. [2009] 1 S.L.R.(R) 642, 691. This concerned allegations made by Singapore Democratic Party members against the Singapore prime minister and minister mentor.
53. What Qualities Would You Want in Political Leaders?, Straits Times (Singapore), 28 Nov. 1992, 33.
54. Many People Around the World Embrace Junzi Principle, Straits Times (Singapore), 22 Aug. 1997, 36-37.
55. Benedict Sheehy, Singapore 'Shared Values' and Law: Non East versus West Constitutional Hermeneutic, 34 HKLJ 67, 73 (2004).
56. Public Prosecutor v Kwong Kok Hing [2008] S.G.C.A. 10, para 17.
57. Lord Diplock, [1980-1981] S.L.R. 48, 61C-D.
58. [1994] 3 S.L.R. 662.
59. [1998] S.G.H.C. 351.
60. Thio Li-ann, Recent Constitutional Developments: Of Shadows and Whips, Race, Rifts and Rights, Terror and Tudungs, Women and Wrongs, Sing. L.L.S. 328, 348-362 (2002).
61. Malay Rights Group could damage racial harmony, Straits Times (Singapore) 27 June 1997 at 50.
62. No to legal body to fight for equal opportunities, Straits Times (Singapore), 4 April 2002.
63. Thio Li-ann, 'Pragmatism and Realism do not mean abdication': A Critical Inquiry into Singapore's Engagement with International Human Rights Law 8 Singapore Y.B.I.L. 41, 59-61 (2004).
64. 83 Singapore Parliament Reports, 21 May 2008, col. 855.
65. Beatrice Fernandez v. Sistem Penerbangan Malaysia [2005] 3 M.L.J. 681.
66. 80 Singapore Parliament Reports, 17 Oct. 2005 col. 1549ff.
67. Perry Dane, Constitutional law and religion, in A Companion to Philosophy of Law and Legal Theory 114 (Dennis Patterson ed., 2001).
68. Malaysia did create a National Human Rights Commission in 1999: Li-ann Thio, Panacea, placebo or pawn? The Teething Problems of the Human Rights Commission of Malaysia, 40 Geo. Wash. Int'l L. Rev. 1271 (2009).
69. In contrast, the 1949 Indian Constitution written by the Constituent Assembly contained a preamble and non-judicially enforceable directive principles of state policy that were "fundamental" to "governance" and law-making.
70. The Pancasila state ideology was supposed to guide social relationships: Donald E. Weatherbee, Pancasila, Politics and Power, 25 Asian Survey 187 (1985).
71. Zainah Anwar, I've rediscovered the Rukun Negara, New Straits Times (Malaysia), 8 Sept. 2006.
72. Michael Morfit, Pancasila: The Indonesian State Ideology According to the New Order Government, 21 Asian Survey 838 (1981).
73. Chng Hee Kok, 56 Singapore Parliament Reports, 15 Jan. 1991, col. 919.
74. Lee Hsien Loong, 52 Singapore Parliament Reports, 17 Jan. 1989, col. 182.
75. Soft law may be institutionalized in constitutions through directive principles, such as the Indian or Philippines Constitutions, which may influence judicial interpretation. Courts have treated nonenforceable rights as justiciable, e.g., right to healthy environment: Oposa v. Factoran [G.R. No. 101083, July 30, 1993] (Supreme Court, Philippines).
76. Abdullah Tarmugi, 56 Singapore Parliament Reports, 14 Jan. 1991, col 819.
77. National Symbols: http://vs.moe.edu.sg/national_symbol.htm.
78. 68 Singapore Parliament Reports, 19 Feb. 1998, col. 441.
79. The Barisan Socialist coalition government, anchored by the United Malay National Organization (UMNO), has ruled Malaysia since 1957, while Singapore has been under the People's Action Party (PAP) government since 1965.
80. Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution 10 (2007).
81. The Malaysian Constitution was amended some fifty times between 1957-2007: C. L. Lim, The Constitution of Malaysia: 50 Years, 50 Amendments and Four Principal Developments in, Constitutionalism in Southeast Asia (Hill & Menzel eds., 2008).
82. The Singapore Constitution has been amended almost once per year since independence: see Jaclyn Neo & Yvonne Lee, Constitutional Supremacy: still a little dicey, in Evolution of a Revolution: 40 Years of the Singapore Constitution 153-192 (Thio & Tan eds., 2009).
83. A constitution is amended by a two-thirds parliamentary majority, which the Barisan Socialist lost in the 2008 General Elections.
84. Prime Minister Lee, 86 Singapore Parliament Reports, 27 May 2009, col. 418ff.
85. The ruling PAP government hold 82 of 84 elective seats.
86. Senior Minister Goh Chok Tong, 'Increasing Public Trust in Leaders of a Harmonious Society,' Singapore-China Forum on Leadership, 16 April 2010, at http://www.pmo.gov.sg/News/Speeches/Senior+Minister/SM+Goh+s+speech+at+the+Singapore-China+Forum+on+Leadership+at+Ritz+Carlton+Hotel.htm.
87. "Feudalism was prevalent in pre-colonial Malay society and individual liberty was restricted. Malay society was divided into two main classes, the higher class consisting of the Ruler and the chiefs with their unlimited rights and privileges, and the lower class such as peasants, slaves and debt-servants": Wan Manan, A Nation in Distress: Human Rights, Authoritarianism and Asian Values in Malaysia, 14 Sojourn 359, 364 (1999).
88. Ng Eng Hen, 86 Singapore Parliament Reports, 19 Aug. 2009.
89. Interview, National Geographic Magazine, 6 July 2009, Jan. 2010 edition: http://www.news.gov.sg/public/sgpc/en/media_releases/agencies/pmo/transcript/T-20091228-1.html.
90. [2004] S.G.C.A. 45.
91. Art 142, Singapore Constitution defines "past reserves" as reserves the government accumulated prior to its current term.
92. Li-ann Thio, (S)electing the President of Singapore: Diluting democracy?, 5 Int'l J. Const. L. (I. CON) 526 (2007).
93. Yvonne Lee, Under Lock and Key: The Evolving Role of the Elected President As a Fiscal Guardian, Sing J.L.S290 [2007].
94. Art 151, 22B, 22D, Singapore Constitution.
95. Principles for Determining and Safeguarding the Accumulated Reserves of the Government and the Fifth Schedule Statutory Boards and Government Companies (Cmd 5 of 1999) ("Principles").
96. 70 Singapore Parliament Reports, 17 Aug. 1999, col. 2033.
97. Goh Chok Tong, 70 Singapore Parliament Reports, 17 Aug. 1999, col. 2031.
98. Lee Tsao Yuan, 70 Singapore Parliament Reports, 17 Aug. 1999, col. 2234.
99. The constitutional definition of "reserves" (art. 2[1]) is "the excess of assets over liabilities of the Government"; the principles detail what constitute assets and liabilities and how to identify past from current reserves.
100. 70 Singapore Parliament Reports, 18 Aug. 1999 col. 2209.
101. Richard Hu, 70 Singapore Parliament Reports, 17 Aug. 1999 col. 2027.
102. White paper on reserves to be made binding, Straits Times (Singapore), 19 Aug. 1999, 29.
103. Gordon Means, Malaysian Politics: The Second Generation, 13 (1991).
104. British colonial policies encouraged Malays to remain in the rural economy: Kenzo Horii, Disintegration of the Colonial Economic Legacies and Social Restructuring in Malaysia, 29 Developing Economies 281 (1991).
105. In 1971, bumiputera investors owned only 2.4 percent of public equity while foreign ownership was 63.3 percent.
106. Foreign investors face restrictions on property acquisition: New department to replace Foreign Investment Committee, The Star Online (Malaysia), 1 July 2009.
107. The New Development Policy in 1990, and the National Vision Policy in 2001. For present purposes, references to NEP collectively refers to all these program.
108. See K.S. Jomo, Whither Malaysia's New Economic Policy?, 63 Pacific Affairs 469 (1990-1991).
109. Mohammad Rizal Salim & Zalina Abdul Halim, The Boundaries of Law: A Socio-Legal Perspective of Malaysia's National Economic Policy, 8 Global Jurist, Advances, Art 7, 1, 15 (2008): http://works.bepress.com/mohammad_rizal_salim/5/.
110. This was not met and current estimates as of 2007 is that bumiputeras own 19 percent of the economy.
111. Constitution (Amendment) Act A30 of 1971.
112. The Reid Commission, while accepting special privileges as a way for a historically economically disadvantaged majority to catch up, also recommended a review after fifteen years: Report of the Constitutional Commission (Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer, 1957), paras. 163-170.
113. Article 10(4), Malaysian Constitution.
114. UMNO dominates the Barisan Nasional coalition; its other components are the Malaysian Chinese Association and Malaysian Indian Congress.
115. Tan argues the guidelines cannot be ignored as the government had underscored their importance by using words such as "if left unregulated" and "national interest," requiring foreigners to show their acquisition did not undermine the national interest: see Roger Tan, The FIC Guidelines - To Comply or Not to Comply - that is the Question! MLJA 145, 147 [2000].
116. MAA Holdings Sdh Bhd v. Ng Siew Wah [1986] 1 M.L.J. 170.
117. It is usual to require FIC approval as a condition precedent for acquisition agreements and for the FIC to conditionally approve a proposed acquisition, such as requiring a company be restructured within a time frame to provide for bumiputera participation: Victor Lean, Malaysia, 5 Asia Business Law Review 24, 25 (July 1994).
118. Malaysia Overseas Investment Corporation Sdn Bhd v Sri Segambut Supermarket Sdn Bhd [1986] 2 M.L.J. 382.
119. Wan Hamzah J, Ho Kok Cheong Sdn Bhd & Anor v Lim Kay Tiong & Ors [1979] 2 M.L.J. 224.
120. Norma Yaakob J, Thong Foo Ching v Shigenori Ono [1998] 4 M.L.J. 585, 599.
121. Section 23(e) Contracts Act 1950.
122. [1985] 1 M.L.J. 167. There was no suggestion that the agreement to transfer shares was unenforceable for lacking FIC approval. In Paradragon (Singapore) Pte Ltd lwn Palmerston Holdings Sdn Bhd [1998] 7 M.L.J. 199, the High Court treated the need to obtain FIC approval as an implied term.
123. Rejecting Hamzah J's view in Ho Kok Cheong that the Guidelines for the Regulation of Acquisition of Assets, Mergers and Take-Overs were of an "advisory character" and could not render a shares agreement void for public policy for noncompliance with FIC guidelines, which were "issued not pursuant to any power given by law" and were "government's political policy," not public policy.
124. Whether the taking of "judicial notice," so as to allow a public authority to exercise its discretion in a similar fashion, remains an open question.
125. In Brett Andrew Macnamara v. Kam Lee Kuan [2008] 2 M.L.J. 450, the Ipoh High Court assessed whether a trust deed was consistent with FIC guidelines.
126. Clive Kessler, Archaism and modernity: Contemporary Malay political culture, in Fragmented Vision: Culture and Politics in Contemporary Malaysia, 133, 147 (Joel Kahn and Francis Loh eds., (1992).
127. K. S. Jomo, The New Economic Policy and Interethnic Relations in Malaysia, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development Paper No. 7 (1 Sept. 2004).
128. Najib ready to end special privileges for Malays, The Malaysian Insider, 24 Oct 2008.
129. However, in 2009, he reportedly vowed to continue race-based policies: Nazry Bahrawi, Will Malaysia ever be colour-blind? Guardian.co.uk, 16 Nov. 2009.
130. Jan-Werner Müller, On the origins of Constitutional Patriotism, 5 Contemporary Political Theory 278 (2006).
131. Jan-Werner Müller, Three Objections to Constitutional Patriotism 14 Constellations 197, (2007).
132. Patchen Markell, Making Affect Safe for Democracy? On "Constitutional Patriotism", 28 Political Theory 38, 44 (2000).
133. Jan-Werner Müller, Constitutional Patriotism 61 (2007).
134. Fareed Zakaria, The Rise of Illiberal Democracies, 76 Foreign Affairs 22, 24 (1997).
135. Nappalli v. ITE [1999] 2 S.L.R. 569, 576G (C.A.).
136. See Li-ann Thio, Control, Co-optation and Co-Operating: Managing Religious Harmony in Singapore's Multi-Ethnic, Quasi-Secular State, 33 Hastings Const. L.Q. 197 (2005).
137. Para. 18, MRH white paper (Cmd 21 of 1989).
138. Buddhist, Taoist leaders accept pastor's apology, Straits Times (Singapore), 10 Feb. 2010, 1.
139. Statement, Deputy PM Wong Kan Seng, Straits Times (Singapore), 10 Feb. 2010, A6.
140. The Singapore government refers to "OB markers" to indicate something is off-limits.
141. Don't trivialise beliefs of others: SM Goh, Sunday Times (Singapore), 14 Feb. 2010, 1.
142. Articles 152, 153, Singapore Constitution.
143. Cap. 290.
144. Section 298, 298A Penal Code (Cap 224).
145. Cap. 167A.
146. Section 8(1) Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act (Cap 167A).
147. 82 Singapore Parliamentary Reports, 12 Feb. 2007, col. 1319.
148. The tussle over the custody of a Dutch girl raised by a Muslim woman, whose Catholic parents sought custody after World War II, in Re Maria Hertogh [1951] 1 MLJ 164 is a cautionary tale as it precipitated riots in a context where racial distinctions heighten religious ones.
149. Thio Li-ann, Between Eden and Armageddon: Navigating 'Religion' and 'Politics' in Singapore', Singapore Journal of Legal Studies 365-405 (2009).
150. President's Address, 18 May 2009, Opening of Parliament, at http://www.istana.gov.sg/News/Address+by+President+S+R+Nathan+at+the+Opening+of+Parliament.htm.
151. PM Lee Hsien Loong, National Day Rally Speech (16 August 2009), at: http://www.pmo.gov.sg/News/Messages/National+Day+Rally+Speech+2009+Part+3+Racial+and+Religious+Harmony.htm.
152. The Jemaah Islamiyah Arrests and the Threat of Terrorism (Cmd 2 at 2003), 23.
153. When religion encroaches into public space in S'pore, Straits Times (Singapore), 2 Oct. 2002.
154. Press Statement, Declaration on Religious Harmony, 9 June 2003, para. 8, noting it is "not a legal document.".
155. Primarily the Taoists and Buddhists: Don't end up preaching, say religious leaders, Straits Times (Singapore) 26 Sept. 2002.
156. Need to tackle proselytism when drafting religious code, China News Asia (24 Oct. 2002), online:.
157. Minister of State Chan Soo Sen noted the principles "look rather familiar", reflected "moral values and social norms" and embodied "common sense.".
158. 75 Singapore Parliament Reports, 25 Nov. 2202, col. 1496.
159. T. C. Grey, Constitutionalism: An Analytic Framework in Constitutionalism 191 (Pennock & Chapman eds., 1979).
160. Brian Tamanaha, A General Jurisprudence of Law and Society 167 (2001).
161. Jan-Erik Lane, Constitutions and Political Theory 15 (1996).
162. The Paradox of Constitutionalism: Constituent Power and Constitutional Form 4 (Martin Loughlin & Neil Walker eds., 2007).
163. Lucian W. Pye, Asian Power and Politics: The Cultural Dimensions of Authority x (1985).
164. James Madison, The Federalist No. 51, 347 (Jacob Cooke ed., 1961) (1788).