Conserving European biodiversity in a changing climate: The bern convention, the European Union Birds and Habitats directives and the adaptation of nature to climate change

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 20, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 62-77

  Trouwborst, Arie ^a  

^a TILBURG UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; BIRD; CLIMATE CHANGE; CLIMATE EFFECT; EUROPEAN UNION; HABITAT CONSERVATION; NATURE CONSERVATION;

EUROPE;

AVES;

EID: 79960790982     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9388.2011.00700.x     Document Type: Review

References (101)

1. For attempts to summarize the scientific literature on the effects of climate change on biodiversity and on recommended adaptation measures, see A. Trouwborst, International Nature Conservation Law and the Adaptation of Biodiversity to Climate Change: A Mismatch', 21:3 Journal of Environmental Law (2009), 419, at 419-421 and 426-429
2. Besides Trouwborst, ibid., this includes M. Bowman, Global Warming and the International Legal Protection of Wildlife, in R.R. Churchill and D. Freestone, International Law and Global Climate Change (Kluwer, 1991), 129
3. G.C. Boere and D. Taylor, Global and Regional Governmental Policy and Treaties as Tools Towards the Mitigation of the Effect of Climate Change on Waterbirds, 146 Ibis (2004), 111
4. R. Sutherland, O. Watts and G. Williams, Climate Change and the Birds and Habitats Directives: Can They Work Together', 26(3/4) Ecos (2005), 86
5. K. Wheeler, Bird Protection and Climate Changes: A Challenge for Natura 2000', 13:3 Tilburg Foreign Law Review (2006), 283
6. H.E. Woldendorp, Integratiedebat in het Natuurbeschermingsbeleid, 45/46 Nederlands Juristenblad (2007), 2881
7. D. Hodas, Biodiversity and Climate Change Laws: A Failure to Communicate', in M.I. Jeffery et al. (eds), Biodiversity, Conservation, Law and Livelihoods: Bridging the North-South Divide (Cambridge University Press, 2008), 383
8. A. Cliquet, C. Backes, J. Harris and P. Howsam, Adaptation to Climate Change: Legal Challenges for Protected Areas, 5:1 Utrecht Law Review (2009), 158
9. W.C.G. Burns, Belt and Suspenders' The World Heritage Conventions Role in Confronting Climate Change, 18:2 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law (2009), 148
10. T. Marauhn, The Potential of the Convention on Biological Diversity to Address the Effects of Climate Change in the Arctic, in T. Koivurova et al. (eds), Climate Governance in the Arctic (Springer, 2009
11. S. Erens, J. Verschuuren and K. Bastmeijer, Adaptation to Climate Change to Save Biodiversity: Lessons Learned from African and European Experiences, in B.J. Richardson et al. (eds), Climate Law and Developing Countries: Legal and Policy Challenges for the World Economy (Edward Elgar, 2009), 206
12. C.J. Bastmeijer and K. Willems, Robuust, Verbonden en Beschermd. Past een Klimaatbestendig Natuurbeleid met Aandacht voor Wilde Natuur-beleving in het Juridische Natura 2000-Jasje', in C.W. Backes et al., Natuur(lijk) met Recht Beschermd: Bouwstenen voor een Effectieve en Hanteerbare Natuurbescherming (Boom Juridische Uitgevers, 2010), 85
13. A. Dodd, A. Hardiman, K. Jennings and G. Williams, Commentary: Protected Areas and Climate Change: Reflections from a Practitioners Perspective, 6:1 Utrecht Law Review (2010), 141
14. A. Cliquet, J. Harris, P. Howsam and C. Backes, Response to Protected Areas and Climate Change: Reflections from a Practitioners Perspective, 6:1 Utrecht Law Review (2010), 149
15. D. Schramm and A. Fishman, Legal Frameworks for Adaptive Natural Resource Management in a Changing Climate, 22 Georgetown International Environmental Law Review (2010), 491
16. J. Verschuuren, Rethinking Restoration in the European Unions Birds and Habitats Directives, 28:4 Ecological Restoration (2010), 431
17. A. Kühl and E. Maruma Mrema, Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity, with a Focus on Migratory Species, in T. Honkonen and E. Couzens (eds), International Environmental Lawmaking and Diplomacy Review (University of Eastern Finland, forthcoming 2011
18. See also the following presentations at the 8th IUCN Academy of Environmental Law Colloquium, which focused on Linkages Between Biodiversity and Climate Change (Ghent, 14-17 September 2010): A. Cliquet, Connectivity Between Protected Areas as an Adaptation Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation
19. A. Trouwborst, Climate Change Adaptation and the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species and its Daughter Agreements
20. H. Unnerstall, Natura 2000 and Climate Change: Options and Imperatives for Adapting the Interpretation of the Habitats Directive
21. R. Uylenburg, Climate Change and the (In)flexibility of Natura 2000, all of which can be found at
22. See, e.g., J.E. Hossell, N.E. Ellis, M.J. Harley and I.R. Hepburn, Climate Change and Nature Conservation: Implications for Policy and Practice in Britain and Ireland, 11:1 Journal for Nature Conservation (2003), 67; (for the Netherlands
23. B. van Leeuwen and P. Opdam, Klimaatsverandering Vergt Aanpassing van het Natuurbeleid, 104:3 De Levende Natuur (2003), 122
24. (for Australia) H. Clarke, Conserving Biodiversity in the Face of Climate Change, 14:2 Agenda (2007), 157
25. B. Griffith et al., Climate Change Adaptation for the US National Wildlife Refuge System 44:6 Environmental Management (2009), 1043
26. Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, 5 June 1992)
27. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 2 February 1971). See, e.g., COP Resolution VIII.3 on Climate Change and Wetlands (26 November 2002); and COP Resolution X.24 on Climate Change and Wetlands (4 November 2008)
28. G. Tucker and Y. de Soye, Impacts of Climate Change and Selected Renewable Energy Infrastructures on EU Biodiversity and the Natura 2000 Network. Tasks 2b & 3b: Impacts of Climate Change on EU Biodiversity Policy, and Recommendations for Policies and Measures to Maintain and Restore Biodiversity in the EU in the Face of Climate Change (IEEP/IUCN, August 2009 [updated November 2009]), 81
29. Council Directive 92/43/EC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (21 May 1992), [1992] OJ L206/7
30. Report from the European Commission to the Council and the European Parliament on the Conservation Status of Habitat Types and Species as Required under Article 17 of the Habitats Directive, Communication COM(2009) 358 (13 July 2009)
31. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern, 19 September 1979)
32. Directive 2009/147/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Conservation of Wild Birds (30 November 2009), [2010] OJ L20/7; this is the codified version of Council Directive 79/409/EEC (2 April 1979) as subsequently modified
33. Studies discussing the Birds and Habitats Directives are particularly plentiful. As for the Bern Convention, two comprehensive and recent introductions are: C. Lasén Díaz, The Bern Convention: 30 Years of Nature Conservation in Europe, 19:2 Review of European Community and International Environmental Law (2010), 185
34. M. Bowman, P. Davies and C. Redgwell, Lysters International Wildlife Law (2nd ed.) (Cambridge University Press, 2010), at 297-345
35. Other scientific literature addressing the Bern Convention includes: S. Jen, The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern 1979): Procedures of Application in Practice, 2:2 Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy (1999), 224
36. A. Trouwborst, Managing the Carnivore Comeback: International and EU Species Protection Law and the Return of Lynx, Wolf and Bear to Western Europe, 22:3 Journal of Environmental Law (2010), 347
37. Recommendation No. 122 (2006) of the Standing Committee on the Conservation of Biological Diversity in the Context of Climate Change (30 November 2006)
38. Recommendation No. 135 (2008) of the Standing Committee on Addressing the Impacts of Climate Change on Biodiversity (27 November 2008)
39. Recommendation No. 142 (2009) of the Standing Committee Interpreting the CBD Definition of Invasive Alien Species to Take into Account Climate Change (26 November 2009
40. Recommendation No. (2009) of the Standing Committee on Further Guidance for Parties on Biodiversity and Climate Change (26 November 2009)
41. Recommendation No. 145 (2010) of the Standing Committee on Guidance for Parties on Biodiversity and Climate Change in Mountain Regions (9 December 2010
42. Recommendation No. 146 (2010) of the Standing Committee on Guidance for Parties on Biodiversity and Climate Change in European Islands (9 December 2010
43. Recommendation No. 147 (2010) of the Standing Committee on Guidance for Parties on Wildland Fires, Biodiversity and Climate Change (9 December 2010)
44. For the work of the Group of Experts, see Bern Convention: Group of Experts on Biodiversity and Climate Change (Council of Europe, undated), found at
45. These include: J.M. Moreno, Climate Change, Wildland Fires and Biodiversity in Europe, T-PVS/Inf (2010) 10
46. C. Epple and Y. de Soye, Climate Change and the Biodiversity of European Islands, T-PVS/Inf (2010) 9
47. E. Spehn and K. Rudmann-Maurer, Impacts of Climate Change on Mountain Biodiversity in Europe, T-PVS/Inf (2010) 8
48. M.B. Araújo, Protected Areas and Climate Change in Europe, T-PVS/Inf (2009) 10
49. V. Heywood, The Impacts of Climate Change on Plant Species in Europe, T-PVS/Inf (2009) 9
50. R. Wilson, Impacts of Climate Change on European Invertebrates, T-PVS/Inf (2009) 8
51. M. Harley and N. Hodgson, Review of Existing International and National Guidance on Adaptation to Climate Change with a Focus on Biodiversity Issues, T-PVS/Inf (2008) 12
52. K. Henle et al., Climate Change Impacts on European Amphibians and Reptiles, T-PVS/Inf (2008) 11
53. B. Huntley, Climate Change and the Vulnerability of Bern Convention Species and Habitats, T-PVS/Inf (2008) 6
54. L. Capdevila-Argüelles and B. Zilletti, A Perspective on Climate Change and Invasive Alien Species, T-PVS/Inf (2008) 5
55. M. Ferrer, I. Newton and K. Bildstein, Climate Change and the Conservation of Migratory Birds in Europe: Identifying Effects and Conservation Priorities, T-PVS/Inf (2008) 1
56. B. Huntley, Climatic Change and the Conservation of European Biodiversity: Towards the Development of Adaptation Strategies, T-PVS/ Inf (2007) 3
57. M.B. Usher, Conserving European Biodiversity in the Context of Climate Change, T-PVS/Inf (2005) 21
58. Parliamentary Assembly Recommendation 1918 (2010) on Biodiversity and Climate Change (30 April 2010)
59. see also the reply adopted by the Committee of Ministers at the 1101st meeting of the Ministers Deputies (8 December 2010)
60. Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969). For a comprehensive analysis of the rules of treaty interpretation
61. R. Gardiner, Treaty Interpretation (Oxford University Press, 2008)
62. As the well-known clarification by the International Law Commission states: When a treaty is open to two interpretations one of which does and the other does not enable the treaty to have appropriate effects, good faith and the objects and purposes of the treaty demand that the former interpretation should be adopted (International Law Commission,Yearbook of the International Law Commission, Vol. II (A/CN.4/SER.A/1966/Add.1, 1966), at 219)
63. On the possibility of such decisions serving as subsequent agreement or subsequent practice in the context of treaty interpretation see, inter alia, R. Churchill and G. Ulfstein, Autonomous Institutional Arrangements in Multilateral Environmental Agreements: A Littlenoticed Phenomenon in International Law, 94:4 American Journal of International Law (2000), 623, 641
64. A. Wiersema, The New International Law-makers' Conferences of the Parties to Multilateral Environmental Agreements, 31:1 Michigan Journal of International Law (2009), 231
65. Netherlands Crown Decision (in Dutch) in the case lodged by the Competent Authority for the Island of Bonaire on the annulment of two decisions on the Lac wetland by the Governor of the Netherlands Antilles, 11 September 2007, Staatsblad 2007, 347
66. For an English summary and commentary, see J. Verschuuren, Ramsar Soft Law is Not Soft at All: Discussion of the 2007 Decision by the Netherlands Crown on the Lac Ramsar Site on the Island of Bonaire (Ramsar Convention, 2008), found at http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/wurc/wurc- verschuuren-bonaire.pdf
67. See Recommendation No. 99 (2003) of the Standing Committee on the European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species (4 December 2003)
68. The Emerald Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest is an ecological network representing the de facto extension of the Natura 2000 network, established under the Habitats Directive, to non-EU countries - see Recommendation No. 16 (1989) of the Standing Committee on Areas of Special Conservation Interest (9 June 1989)
69. Resolution No. 3 (1996) of the Standing Committee Concerning the Setting Up of a Pan-European Ecological Network (26 January 1996)
70. Resolution No. 5 (1998) of the Standing Committee Concerning the Rules for the Network of Areas of Special Conservation Interest (Emerald Network 4 December 1998)
71. See, e.g., P.F. Donald et al., International Conservation Policy Delivers Benefits for Birds in Europe 307:5839 Science 2007 810
72. Commission Communication of 22 May on Halting the Loss of Biodiversity by 2010 - and Beyond, COM(2006) 216
73. Commission Communication of 1 April 2009 on Adapting to Climate Change: Towards a European Framework for Action, Communication COM(2009) 147
74. For example, the possibility of an Ecosystem Framework Directive is explored in the two articles by A. Cliquet et al., n. 2 above
75. Treaty on European Union (Maastricht, 7 February 1992), Article 4(3)
76. See, inter alia, A. Trouwborst, Modern Approaches to Enforcing Community Environmental Law: A Special Focus on Direct Effect and Criminal Sanctions, in H.H.G. Post (ed.), The Protection of Ambient Air in International and European Law (Eleven International, 2009), 89, at 99-113
77. Article 4 of both directives, as explained by the ECJ in, inter alia, Case C-355/90, ECJ 2 August 1993, Commission v. Spain [1993] ECR I-4221, paras 26-27
78. Case C-44/95, ECJ 11 July 1996, Regina v. Secretary of State for the Environment ex parte Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, [1996] ECR I-3805, para. 26
79. Case C-67/99, ECJ 11 September 2001, Commission v. Ireland (11 September 2001), [2001] ECR I-5757
80. Case C-71/99, ECJ 11 September 2001, Commission v. Germany (11 September 2001), [2001] ECR I-5811
81. Case C-220/99, ECJ 11 September 2001, Commission v. France, [2001] ECR I-5831
82. This is defined as an interconnected network of natural areas, including agricultural land, greenways, wetlands, parks, forest reserves, native plant communities and marine areas that naturally regulate storm flows, temperatures, flood risk and water, air and ecosystem quality. See Commission Communication of 19 January on Options for an EU Vision and Target for Biodiversity Beyond 2010, Communication COM(2010) 4, at 6; Council Conclusions on Biodiversity Post-2010 (15 March 2010), para. 6
83. The principal output of the Working Group has been the discussion paper Towards a Strategy on Climate Change, Ecosystem Services and Biodiversity (EU Ad Hoc Expert Working Group on Biodiversity and Climate Change, 2009), found at
84. M. Kettunen et al., Guidance on the Maintenance of Landscape Connectivity Features of Major Importance for Wild Flora and Fauna: Guidance on the Implementation of Article 3 of the Birds Directive (79/409/EEC) and Article 10 of the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) (Institute for European Environmental Policy, 2007)
85. ECJ 11 January 2007, Case C-183/05, Commission v. Ireland [2007] ECR I-137, para. 29
86. Ibid., paras 14 and 18. Additional clarity on the implications of Article 12 can be expected when the Court delivers its judgment in the proceedings concerning the protection of the common hamster (Cricetus cricetus) in France, instigated on 25 September 2009: Case C-383/09, Commission v. France, [2009] OJ C312/16; see the Opinion of Advocate-General Kokott (20 January 2011) [not yet reported]
87. European Commission, Guidance Document on the Strict Protection of Animal Species of Community Interest under the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC (European Commission, February 2007), at 11
88. ECJ 14 October 2010, Case C-535/07, Commission v. Austria [not yet reported], para. 65
89. Ibid., 167. The use of this type of qualitative conservation objectives for Natura 2000 sites was approved by the highest administrative court in the Netherlands, the Council of State, in Case 200802545/1, Faunabescherming e.a. v. Minister van Landbouw, Natuur en Voedselkwaliteit (6 November 2008)
90. Case C-3/96, ECJ 19 May 1998, Commission v. Netherlands [1998] ECR I-3031
91. Case C-209/04, ECJ 23 March 2006, Commission v. Austria, [2006] ECR I-2755
92. Case C-418/04, ECJ 13 December 2007, Commission v. Ireland, [2007] ECR I-10947
93. For a particularly clear example, see Case C-117/00, ECJ 13 June 2002, Commission v. Ireland, [2002] ECR I-5335, paras 26-33
94. This is apparent if only from the use of the term avoid in Article 6(2). See also European Commission, Managing Natura 2000 Sites: The Provisions of Article 6 of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC (European Commission, 2000), at 24
95. Case C-6/04, ECJ 20 October 2005, Commission v. United Kingdom [2005] ECR I-9017, para. 34
96. The nature of Article 6(1) as an obligation of result interlinked with Article 2 is emphasized in European Commission, n. 133 above, at 17
97. As a study commissioned by the Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality concludes: In a world where most annex IV species find their habitat fragmented, long-term persistence of populations can not be ensured in local habitat sites, but requires that these sites can interact in a habitat network. Therefore, an effective implementation of the EU-Habitats Directive requires a landscape level approach: habitat networks (see P. Opdam et al., Effective Protection of the Annex IV Species of the EU-Habitats Directive: The Landscape Approach (Alterra, 2002 at 23)
98. To illustrate, a parallel can be drawn with Articles 12(1) and 12(4) of the directive. The fact that Article 12(4) appears to have been drafted specifically with, inter alia, incidental mortality of marine turtles or cetaceans in fishing gear in mind, does not cancel the applicability to such bycatch of the generic prohibition to kill Annex IV species from Article 12(1). See, e.g., the answer of EU Commissioner Dimas to parliamentary question E-5890/2007 on harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) bycatch in recreational gillnet fisheries (11 February 2008), [2008] OJ C191/150, found at
99. See for one discussion H.M. Dotinga and A. Trouwborst, The Netherlands and the Designation of Marine Protected Areas in the North Sea: Implementing International and European Law, 5:1 Utrecht Law Review (2009), 21
100. See Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (Rome, 25 March 1957), Article 191(2)
101. Case C-127/00, ECJ 7 September 2004, Waddenvereniging and Vogelbeschermingsvereniging [2004] ECR I-7405, para. 44