International nature conservation law and the adaptation of biodiversity to climate change: A mismatch?

Journal of Environmental Law

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 2009, Pages 419-442

  Trouwborst, Arie ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

Adaptation; Biological diversity; Climate change; International law; Nature conservation

Indexed keywords

ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT; BIODIVERSITY; CLIMATE CHANGE; INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION; INTERNATIONAL LAW; NATURE CONSERVATION;

EID: 70449488325     PISSN: 09528873     EISSN: 1464374X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jel/eqp024     Document Type: Article

References (242)

1. See Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2007)
2. and also, inter alia, RL Peters and JDS Darling, 'The Greenhouse Effect and Nature Reserves' (1985) 35 Bioscience 707
3. RL Peters, 'Consequences of GlobalWarming for Biological Diversity', in RL Wyman (ed), Global Climate Change and Life on Earth (Chapman & Hall, New York 1991) 99
4. RL Peters and TJ Lovejoy (eds), Global Warming and Biological Diversity (Yale University Press, New Haven 1992)
5. ME Visser et al, 'Warmer Springs Lead to Mistimed Reproduction in Great Tits (Parus major)' (1998) 265 Proc Roy Soc Lond B 1867
6. M Kapelle et al, 'Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity: A Review and Identification of Key Research Issues' (1999) 8 Biodivers Conserv 1383
7. L Hughes, 'Biological Consequences of Global Warming: Is the Signal Already Apparent?' (2000) 15 Trends Ecol Evol 56
8. OE Sala et al, 'Biodiversity - Global Biodiversity Scenarios for the Year 2100' (2000) 287 Science 1770
9. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2001 (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2001)
10. H Oene et al (eds), Long-Term Effects of Climate Change on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Processes, NRP Report No 410200089 (RIVM, Bilthoven 2001)
11. M Scheffer et al, 'Catastrophic Shifts in Ecosystems' (2001) 413 Nature 591
12. JP McCarty, 'Ecological Consequences of Recent Climate Change' (2001) 15 Conserv Biol 320
13. JF McLaughlin et al, 'Climate Change Hastens Populations Extinctions' (2002) 99 Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 6070
14. LR Iverson and AM Prasad, 'Potential Redistribution of Tree Species Habitat under Five Climate Change Scenarios in the Eastern US' (2002) 155 Forest Ecol Manage 205
15. H Gitay et al, Climate Change and Biodiversity, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Technical Paper V (IPCC, Geneva 2002)
16. RL Root et al, 'Fingerprints of Global Warming on Wild Animals and Plants' (2003) 421 Nature 57
17. R Green et al (eds), Global Climate Change and Biodiversity (RSPB, Bedfordshire 2003)
18. N Dudley, No Place to Hide: Effects of Climate Change on Protected Areas (WWF, Gland 2003)
19. C Parmesan and G Yohe, 'A Globally Coherent Fingerprint of Climate Change Impacts Across Natural Systems' (2003) 421 Nature 37
20. CE Burns et al, 'Global Climate Change and Mammalian Species Diversity in US National Parks' (2003) 100 Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 11474
21. CD Thomas et al, 'Extinction Risk from Climate Change' (2004) 427 Nature 145
22. A Moller et al (eds), Birds and Climate Change (Elsevier Academic Press, Amsterdam 2004)
23. M Edwards and A Richardson, 'Impact of Climate Change on Marine Pelagic Phenology and Trophic Mismatch' (2004) 430 Nature 881
24. L Christensen et al, 'Vulnerability of the Asian Typical Steppe to Grazing and Climate Change' 63 Climate Change 351
25. European Environment Agency, Impacts of Europe's Changing Climate, EEA Report No 2 (EEA, Copenhagen 2004)
26. DS Lemmen and FJ Warren (eds), Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: A Canadian Perspective (Government of Canada, Ottawa 2004)
27. M B Araújo et al, 'Would Climate Change Drive Species Out of Reserves? An Assessment of Existing Reserve-Selection Methods' (2004) 10 Global Change Biol 1618
28. R Brooker and J Young (eds), Climate Change and Biodiversity in Europe: A Review of Impacts, Policy, Gaps in Knowledge and Barriers to the Exchange of Information between Scientists and Policy Makers (Background Paper for Meeting of European Platform for Biodiversity Research Strategy, Aviemore 2005)
29. LE Chambers et al, 'Climate Change and its Impact on Australia's Avifauna' (2005) 105 Emu 1
30. TE Lovejoy and L Hannah (eds), Climate Change and Biodiversity (Yale University Press, New Haven 2005)
31. JA Pounds et al, 'Widespread Amphibian Extinctions from Epidemic Disease Driven by Global Warming' (2006) 439 Nature 161
32. JR Malcom et al, 'Global Warming and Extinctions of Endemic Species from Biodiversity Hotspots' (2006) 20 Conserv Biol 538
33. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity, Global Biodiversity Outlook 2 (CBD Secretariat, Montreal 2006)
34. O Hoegh-Guldberg et al, 'Coral Reefs under Rapid Climate Change and Ocean Acidification' (2007) 318 Science 1737
35. VR de Dios et al, 'Climate Change Effects on Mediterranean Forests and Preventive Measures' (2007) 33 New Forests 29
36. B Huntley et al, A Climatic Atlas of European Breeding Birds (Lynx Edicions, Barcelona 2007)
37. W Leng et al, 'Response of Larch Species to Climate Changes' (2008) 1J Plant Eco 203
38. BH McRay et al, 'A Multi-Model Framework for Simulating Wildlife Population Response to Land-Use and Climate Change' (2008) 219 Ecol Model 77.
39. In Art 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity (adopted 5 June 1992; in force 29 December 1993;1760 UNTS 79), biological diversity is defined as 'the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.'
40. International nature conservation law is understood here to encompass all norms of public international law concerned with the management, use and/or preservation of ecosystems and species. Although its core is formed by instruments with conservation as main aim, it also includes fisheries instruments and parts of instruments primarily concerned with (e.g. water or air pollution).
41. Rare exceptions include GC Boere and D Taylor, 'Global and Regional Governmental Policy and Treaties as Tools Towards the Mitigation of the Effect of Climate Change on Waterbirds' (2004) 146 Ibis 111
42. S Erens et al, 'Adaptation to Climate Change to Save Biodiversity: Lessons Learnt from African and European Experiences', paper presented at IUCN Academy of Environmental Law Conference 'Climate Law in Developing Countries Post-2012' (Ottawa 2008) and accessible at http://ssrn.com
43. and A Cliquet et al, 'Adaptation to Climate Change: Legal Challenges for Protected Areas' (2009) 5 Utrecht L Rev 158.
44. The latter study is limited to EU law, which is also discussed (in Dutch) in HE Woldendorp, 'Integratiedebat in het Natuurbeschermingsbeleid' (2007) Nederlands Juristenblad 2881
45. and HE Woldendorp, 'Dynamische Natuur in een Statische Rechtsorde' (2009) 36 Tijdschrift voor Milieu en Recht 134.
46. See, for instance, B Griffith et al, 'Climate Change Adaptation for the US National Wildlife Refuge System' (2009) Environ Manage (published online ahead of print on 23 June 2009)
47. JE Hossell et al, 'Climate Change and Nature Conservation: Implications for Policy and Practice in Britain and Ireland' (2003) 11J Nat Conserv 67
48. and (in respect of The Netherlands) B van Leeuwen and P Opdam, 'Klimaatsverandering Vergt Aanpassing van het Natuurbeleid (2003) 104 De Levende Natuur 122.
49. For a recent illustration of the debate in the UK, see the letter entitled 'Our Natural Environment Now Faces an Unprecedented Threat' by Helen Phillips, chief executive of Natural England, published in The Times of 20 June 2009. In it she advances that 'as a society, we have to do far, far more to enable the natural environment to adapt to climate change'.
50. See, for instance, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis (World Resources Institute,Washington DC 2005) 3-4.
51. For two popular descriptions see R Leakey and R Lewin, The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind (Anchor, New York 1996)
52. and M Delibes de Castro, Vida: La Naturaleza en Peligro (Ediciones Temas de Hoy, Madrid 2001).
53. Convention on Biological Diversity (n 2), Preamble.
54. WSSD Plan of Implementation (adopted 4 September 2002), para 44.
55. A Balmford et al, 'The Convention on Biological Diversity's 2010 Target' (2005) 307 Science 212
56. B Jack 'The European Community and Biodiversity Loss: Missing the Target?' (2006) 15 Rev Eur Commun Int Environ L 304
57. European Commission, European Union Biodiversity Action Plan 'Halting the Loss of Biodiversity by 2010 - and Beyond (European Commission, Brussels 2008)
58. and UN General Assembly Resolution 63/219 (adopted 19 December 2008), acknowledging in its Preamble that 'an unprecedented effort is needed to achieve' the 2010 target.
59. 'Carta di Siracusa' on Biodiversity (adopted 24 April 2009), Preamble, paras II and VIII.
60. S Lyster, International Wildlife Law (Grotius Publications, Cambridge 1985).
61. Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (adopted 2 February 1971; in force 21 December 1975; 996 UNTS 245); generally, see MJ Bowman, 'The Ramsar Convention onWetlands: Has it Made a Difference?' (2002) 10 Ybk Int Coop Environ Dev 61
62. and J Verschuuren, 'The Case of Transboundary Wetlands under the Ramsar Convention: Keep the Lawyers Out!' (2008) 19 Colo J Int'l Envtl L Policy 49, at 56-63.
63. UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (adopted 16 November 1972; in force 17 December 1975; 11 ILM (1972) 1358); generally, see F Francioni (ed), The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2008).
64. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (adopted 3 March 1973; in force 1 July 1975; 993 UNTS 243).
65. Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (adopted 23 June 1979; in force 1 November 1983; 10 ILM (1980) 15). Generally on the CMS, see S Lyster, 'The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (The 'Bonn Convention')' (1989) 29 Nat Res J 979
66. and R Caddell, 'International Law and the Protection of Migratory Wildlife: An Appraisal of Twenty-Five Years of the Bonn Convention' (2005) 16 Colo J Int'l Envtl L Policy 113.
67. See n 2 above
68. on the CBD generally, see D Bodansky, 'International Law and the Protection of Biological Diversity' (1995) 28 Vanderbilt J Transnatl L 623
69. and MJ Bowman and C Redgwell (eds), International Law and the Conservation of Biological Diversity (Kluwer Law International, The Hague 1996).
70. A term coined by JC Kunich, 'The Fallacy of Deathbed Conservation under the Endangered Species Act' (1994) 24 Environ L 501.
71. Literature on the precautionary principle is vast. For selected introductions and lists of further literature, see D Freestone and E Hey (eds), The Precautionary Principle and International Law (Kluwer Law International, The Hague 1996)
72. N de Sadeleer, Environmental Principles (Oxford University Press, Oxford 2002)
73. J Peel, The Precautionary Principle in Practice (The Federation Press, Annandale 2005)
74. R Cooney and B Dickson (eds), Biodiversity and the Precautionary Principle: Risk and Uncertainty in Conservation and Sustainable Use (Earthscan, London 2005)
75. and A Trouwborst, 'The Precautionary Principle in General International Law: Combating the Babylonian Confusion' (2007) 16 Rev Eur Commun Int Env L 185.
76. Literature on the ecosystem approach includes RE Grumbine, 'What is Ecosystem Management?' (1994) 8 Conserv Biol 27
77. OA Houck, 'On the Law of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Management' (1997) 81 Minnesota L Rev 869
78. H Wang, 'Ecosystem Management and Its Application to Large Marine Ecosystems: Science, Law, and Politics' (2003) 35 Ocean Dev Int L 41
79. RD Smith and E Maltby, Using the Ecosystem Approach to Implement the Convention on Biological Diversity (IUCN, Gland/Cambridge 2003)
80. O McIntyre, 'The Emergence of an "Ecosystem Approach"' to the Protection of International Watercourses under International Law' (2004) 13 Rev Eur Commun Int Environ L 1
81. S Parsons, 'Ecosystem Considerations in Fisheries Management: Theory and Practice' (2005) 20 Int J Marine Coastal L 381
82. W Howarth, 'The Progression Towards Ecological Quality Standards' (2006) 18 JEL 3
83. J Morishita, 'What is the Ecosystem Approach for Fisheries Management?' (2008) 32 Mar Pol 19
84. A Fabra and V Gascón, 'The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) and the Ecosystem Approach' (2008) 23 Int J Mar Coast L 567
85. Y Tanaka, A Dual Approach to Ocean Governance (Ashgate, Aldershot 2009) 75-82
86. and A Trouwborst, 'The Precautionary Principle and the Ecosystem Approach in International Law: Differences, Similarities and Linkages' (2009) 18 Rev Eur Commun Int Environ L 26.
87. Some of these issues are discussed in Trouwborst, ibid.
88. See, for instance, PW Birnie et al, International Law and the Environment (3rd edn Oxford University Press, Oxford 2009)
89. Trouwborst, ibid, at 36-37
90. and A Trouwborst, 'Seabird Bycatch - Deathbed Conservation or a Precautionary and Holistic Approach?' (2008) 11 J Int Wildlife L Policy 293.
91. See sources in n 1 above.
92. Huntley et al (n 1).
93. Arctic Council, Impacts of a Warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment Overview Report (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004).
94. See, for instance, International Council for the Exploration of the Seas (ICES), 2008 Report of the Working Group on Seabird Ecology (ICES, Copenhagen 2008).
95. See, for instance, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2007 (n 1)
96. McLaughlin et al (n 1)
97. and Thomas et al (n 1).
98. See Peters and Darling (n 1)
99. RL Peters and JP Myers, 'Preserving Biodiversity in a Changing Climate' (1992) 8 Issues Sci Technol 66
100. CA Bloomgarden, 'Protecting Endangered Species under Future Climate Change: From Single-Species Preservation to an Anticipatory Policy Approach' (1995) 19 Environ Manage 641
101. PN Halpin, 'Global Climate Change and Natural-Area Protection: Management Responses and Research Directions' (1997) 7 Ecol Appl 828
102. JE Williams, 'The Biodiversity Crisis and Adaptation to Climate Change: A Case Study from Australia's Forests' (2000) 61 Environ Monit Assess 65
103. RF Noss, 'Beyond Kyoto: Forest Management in a Time of Rapid Climate Change' (2001) 15 Conserv Biol 578
104. CG Soto, 'The Potential Impacts of Global Climate Change on Marine Protected Areas' (2001) 11 Rev Fish Biol Fisher 181
105. L Hannah et al, 'Climate Change - Integrated Conservation Strategies' (2002) 2 Global Ecol Biogeogr 485
106. L Hannah et al, 'Conservation of Biodiversity in a Changing Climate' (2002) 16 Conserv Biol 264
107. LJ Hansen et al, Buying Time: A User's Manual for Building Resistance and Resilience to Climate Change in Natural Systems (WWF, Gland 2003)
108. Dudley (n 1)
109. Araújo et al (n 1)
110. Brooker and Young (n 1)
111. Lemmen and Warren (n 1)
112. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, The Planning Response to Climate Change: Advice on Better Practice, (ODPM, London 2004)
113. P Opdam and D Wascher, 'Climate Change Meets Habitat Fragmentation: Linking Landscape and Biogeographical Scale Levels in Research and Conservation' (2004) 117 Biol Conserv 285
114. PE Hulme, 'Adapting to Climate Change: Is There Scope for Ecological Management in the Face of a Global Threat?' (2005) 42 J Appl Ecol 784
115. TB Reusch et al, 'Ecosystem Recovery After Climatic Extremes Enhanced by Genotypic Diversity' (2005) 102 Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2826
116. P Williams et al, 'Planning for Climate Change: Identifying Minimum-Dispersal Corridors for the Cape Proteaceae' (2005) 19 Conserv Biol 1063
117. D Welch, 'What Should Protected Area Managers Do in the Face of Climate Change?' (2005) 22 The George Wright Forum 75
118. L Hannah et al, 'The View from the Cape: Extinction Risk, Protected Areas, and Climate Change' (2005) 55 Bio Science 231
119. European Environment Agency, Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate Change in Europe, EEA Technical Report No 7/2005 (EEA, Copenhagen 2005)
120. GAB Da Fonseca et al, 'Managing the Matrix', in TE Lovejoy and L Hannah (eds), Climate Change and Biodiversity (Yale University Press, New Haven 2005) 346
121. CJ Lemieux and DJ Scott, 'Climate Change, Biodiversity Conservation and Protected Area Planning in Canada' (2005) 49 Canadian Geogr 384
122. TL Root and SH Schneider, 'Conservation and Climate Change: The Challenges Ahead' (2006) 20 Conserv Biol 706
123. FS Chapin et al, 'Policy Strategies to Address Sustainability of Alaskan Boreal Forests in Response to a Directionally Changing Climate' (2006) 103 Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 16637
124. JA Harris et al, 'Ecological Restoration and Global Climate Change' (2006) 14 Restor Ecol 170
125. EEM Nillesen and EC van Ierland (eds), Climate Adaptation in the Netherlands (Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, Bilthoven 2006)
126. M Fernández and F Borja Barrera, Doñana y Cambio Climático: Propuestas para la Mitigación de los Efectos (WWF/Adena, Madrid 2006)
127. De Dios et al (n 1)
128. L Hannah et al, 'Protected Area Needs in a Changing Climate' (2007) 5 Front Ecol Environ 131
129. J McLachlan et al, 'A Framework for Debate of Assisted Migration in an Era of Climate Change' (2007) 21 Conserv Biol 297
130. CI Millar et al, 'Climate Change and Forests of the Future: Managing in the Face of Uncertainty' (2007) 17 Ecol Appl 2145
131. D Scott and C Lemieux, 'Climate Change and Protected Areas Policy, Planning and Management in Canada's Boreal Forest' (2007) 83 Forest Chron 347
132. BRANCH Partnership, Planning for Biodiversity in a Changing Climate BRANCH Project Final Report (Natural England, Sheffield 2007)
133. JM Piper et al, Spatial Planning for Biodiversity in Our Changing Climate, Annex 1 of BRANCH Partnership, ibid
134. RJ Mitchell et al, England Biodiversity Strategy - Towards Adaptation to Climate Change, DEFRA Report CRO327 (DEFRA 2007)
135. Royal Society, Biodiversity-Climate Interactions: Adaptation, Mitigation and Human Livelihoods: Report of an International Meeting, June 2007 (The Royal Society, London 2008)
136. US Climate Change Science Program and Subcommittee on Global Change Research, Preliminary Review of Adaptation Options for Climate-Sensitive Ecosystems and Resources (CCSP, 2008)
137. TR McClanahan et al, 'Conservation Action in a Changing Climate' (2008) 1 Conserv Lett 53
138. and the useful overview provided in NE Heller and ES Zavaleta, 'Biodiversity Management in the Face of Climate Change: A Review of 22 Years of Recommendations' (2009) 142 Biol Conserv 14.
139. Peters (n 1) 167.
140. On ecological networks generally, see G Bennett, Integrating Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Use: Lessons Learned From Ecological Networks, (IUCN, Gland/Cambridge 2004)
141. G Bennett and KJ Mulongoy, Review of Experience with Ecological Networks, Corridors and Buffer Zones, CBD Technical Series no 23 (Secretariat of the CBD, Montreal 2006)
142. and M Kettunen et al, Guidance on the Maintenance of Landscape Connectivity Features of Major Importance for Wild Flora and Fauna: Guidance on the Implementation of Article 3 of the Birds Directive (79/ 409/EEC) and Article 10 of the Habitats Directive (92/43/EEC) (Institute for European Environmental Policy, Brussels 2007).
143. Also, Erens et al (n 4) 3 and 29.
144. Incidentally, concern over the pace at which adaptation action is undertaken by states is not unique for the biodiversity context, but also relates to adaptation measures regarding human populations.
145. Erens et al (n 4) 16.
146. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (adopted 9 May 1992; in force 21 March 1994; 31 ILM (1992) 851).
147. Arts 3(3) and 4(1)(b), respectively.
148. R Verheyen, 'Adaptation to the Impacts of Anthropogenic Climate Change - The International Legal Framework' (2002) 11 Rev Eur Commun Int Environ L 129, at 131.
149. Protocol to the UNFCCC (adopted 11 December 1997; in force 16 February 2005; 37 ILM (1998) 22).
150. See Art 4(1)(e)-(f) of the UNFCCC and Art 10(b) of the Kyoto Protocol.
151. The revised negotiating text (FCCC/AWGLCA/2009/INF.1) resulting from the sixth session of the UNFCCC Ad Hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (Bonn, 1-12 June 2009) does not contain detailed provisions on biodiversity adaptation to climate change. The same is true of the five proposals for a new protocol and the twelve proposals for amendment of the Kyoto Protocol which have been submitted by states to the UNFCCC Secretariat.
152. Wetlands are defined in Art 1(1) of the Ramsar Convention as 'areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.'
153. COP Resolution X.24, entitled 'Climate Change and Wetlands' (adopted 4 November 2008), para 12.
154. COP Resolution VIII.3, entitled 'Climate Change and Wetlands: Impacts, Adaptation, and Mitigation' (adopted 26 November 2002), para 5.
155. Ibid, para 14.
156. Resolution X.24 (n 41), para 28.
157. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Ramsar Handbooks for the Wise Use of Wetlands (3rd edn Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland 2007).
158. Art 3(1) of the Convention.
159. See www.ramsar.org.
160. Art 4(1).
161. Art 5.
162. Art 3(2); see also, Ramsar Convention Secretariat (n 45), Handbook 15: Addressing Change in the Ecological Character of Ramsar Sites and OtherWetlands.
163. Natural heritage is defined in Art 2 of the Convention as 'natural features consisting of physical and biological formations or groups of such formations, which are of outstanding universal value from the aesthetic or scientific point of view; geological and physiographical formations and precisely delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened species of animals and plants of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science or conservation; natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value from the point of view of science, conservation or natural beauty.'
164. Art 11 and www.whc.unesco.org.
165. Art 4 of the Convention.
166. Art 5(a) and 5(d).
167. For these and other examples, see A Colette et al, Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage (UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Paris 2007).
168. World Heritage Committee Decision 29COM 7B.a (adopted 17 July 2005), para 6.
169. See Art 11(4). Inclusion in the 'Danger List' does not directly impose additional legal obligations on states.
170. Art I(1)(c)(4).
171. Arts II(3)(b) and III.
172. Art III(4)(a)-(b).
173. Art IV.
174. Art IV(1).
175. Art II(2).
176. COP Resolution 8.13 (adopted 25 November 2005), Preamble.
177. Ibid, para 3.
178. COP Resolution 9.7 (adopted 5 December 2008), Preamble.
179. Ibid.
180. Ibid, paras 1, 2, 4 and 12.
181. Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (adopted 16 June 1995; in force 1 November 1999; 6 Ybk Int Environ L (1995) 907).
182. On AEWA generally, see B Lenten, 'A Flying Start for the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA)' (2001) 4 J Int Wildlife L Policy 159
183. and R Adam, 'Waterbirds, the 2010 Biodiversity Target, and Beyond: AEWA's Contribution to Global Biodiversity Governance' (2008) 38 Environ L Rev 87.
184. MOP Resolution 4.14 (adopted 19 September 2008), paras 1 and 4.
185. Ibid, paras 6 and 7.
186. Ibid, para 5.
187. Draft Conservation Guidelines on Measures Needed to Help Waterbirds Adapt to Climate Change (prepared by British Trust for Ornithology, August 2008), Doc AEWA/MOP 4.28.
188. Art I(1)(a) of the CMS.
189. Art IV(4) of the CMS.
190. The CBD currently has 191 parties.
191. Art 8(a)-(f).
192. Art 6(a)-(b).
193. For a more elaborate overview and discussion, see Erens et al (n 4) 4-9.
194. COP Decision IX/16 (adopted 30 May 2008), paras A(4)(b) and (i).
195. Ibid, paras A(1)(h) and A(4)(h).
196. COP Decision VII/28 (adopted 20 February 2004), para 1(4)(5).
197. COP Decision VII/15 (adopted 20 February 2004), para 12.
198. COP Decision VIII/30 (adopted 31 March 2006), para 4.
199. See Ad-Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biological Diversity and Climate Change, Interlinkages Between Biological Diversity and Climate Change: Advice on the Integration of Biodiversity Considerations into the Implementation of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and its Kyoto Protocol, CBD Technical Series No 10 (Secretariat of the CBD, Montreal 2003)
200. Ad-Hoc Technical Expert Group on Biodiversity and Adaptation to Climate Change, Guidance for Promoting Synergy among Activities Addressing Biological Diversity, Desertification, Land Degradation and Climate Change, CBD Technical Series No 25 (Secretariat of the CBD, Montreal 2006).
201. A number of African and European regimes providing for transboundary protected areas and ecological networks are discussed in Erens et al (n 4).
202. Council Directive 79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds (adopted 2 April 1979).
203. Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora (adopted 21May1992).
204. See on these instruments in the context of climate change adaptation also Cliquet et al (n 4)
205. Erens et al (n 4) at 15-19
206. and Kettunen et al (n 30).
207. See, for instance, PF Donald et al, 'International Conservation Policy Delivers Benefits for Birds in Europe' (2007) 307 Science 810.
208. Art 3(1) of the Habitats Directive.
209. Art 4(1)-(2).
210. Ibid.
211. Art 4.
212. See Art 4 of each directive.
213. See, for instance, Case C-355/90 Commission v Spain [1993] ECR I-04221, paras 26-27
214. Case C-44/95 Regina v Secretary of State for the Environment, ex parte: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds [1996] ECR I-3805, para 26
215. Case C-67/99 Commission v Ireland [2001] ECR I-5757
216. Case C-71/99 Commission v Germany [2001] ECR I-5811
217. and Case C-220/99 Commission v France [2001] ECR I-5831.
218. Art 3 of the Habitats Directive.
219. Art 6(1) of the Habitats Directive (which, according to Art 7, also applies to SPAs designated under the Birds Directive).
220. Art 6(2) (again in conjunction with Art 7) of the Habitats Directive.
221. Art 3 of the Birds Directive.
222. See Case C-117/00 Commission v Ireland [2002] ECR I-5335, para 21.
223. Case C-6/04, Commission v United Kingdom [2005] ECR I-9017, para 34, concerning Art 6(2) of the Habitats Directive
224. see also Cliquet et al (n 4) at 169.
225. Case C-3/96 Commission v The Netherlands [1998] ECR I-3031
226. Case C-209/04 Commission v Austria [2006] ECR I-2755
227. Woldendorp 2007 (n 4) at 2886
228. Erens et al (n 4) at 15
229. Cliquet et al (n 4) at 164.
230. For one discussion, see H M Dotinga and A Trouwborst, 'The Netherlands and the Designation of Marine Protected Areas in the North Sea: Implementing International and European Law' (2009) 5 Utrecht L Rev 21.
231. Also Erens et al (n 4) at 16.
232. For most birds the issue is less crucial on account of their elevated mobility.
233. Art 3(3); see also, Art 10(1).
234. Art 10(2).
235. European Commission Communication COM (2006) 216 (endorsed by EU Council on 18 December 2006), Objective 9.
236. Ibid, para A9.4.2.
237. Kettunen et al (n 30).
238. Communication COM (2009) 147 (1 April 2009), para 3.2.3.
239. A similar conclusion was drawn by Erens et al (n 4) at 28-29.
240. 'Carta di Siracusa' (n 11), para 2.
241. Term used (in Dutch) by R Roos and B van Tooren, 'Flora en Fauna in Rep en Roer' in R Roos and S Woudenberg, Opgewarmd Nederland (Stichting Natuurmedia/Uitgeverij Jan van Arkel/Stichting Natuur en Milieu, Amsterdam/Utrecht 2004) 99.
242. DJ Pain and PF Donald, 'Outside the Reserve: Pandemic Threats to Bird Biodiversity' in K Norris and DJ Pain, Conserving Bird Biodiversity: General Principles and their Application (CUP, Cambridge 2002) 157.