Belt and suspenders? The world heritage convention's role in confronting climate change

Review of European Community and International Environmental Law

Volumn 18, Issue 2, 2009, Pages 148-163

  Burns, William C G ^a  

^a WILLIAMS COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; GOVERNMENT; WORLD HERITAGE SITE;

EID: 70449111896     PISSN: 09628797     EISSN: 14679388     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9388.2009.00637.x     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. See D.L. Feldman, 'Iterative Functionalism and Climate Management Organizations: From Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee', in R.V. Bartlett et al. (eds), International Organizations & Environmental Policy (Policy Studies Organization, 1995), 1195-1196.
2. S. Solomon et al., 'Technical Summary', in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis 5 (IPCC, 2007), available at 〈http://www.ipcc.ch/ ipccreports.ar4-wg1.htm〉. Atmospheric temperatures have been rising at a rate of approximately 0.2°C per decade over the past 30 years. See James E. Hansen, Green Mountain Chrysler-Plymouth-Dodge-Jeep v. Thomas W. Torti, Case Nos. 2:05-CV-302 & 2:05-CV-304 (Consolidated), Declaration of James E. Hansen (Vt., 2007), available at 〈http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/case_for_vermont.pdf〉.
3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 9 May 1992).
4. R.K.L. Panjabi, 'Can International Law Improve the Climate? An Analysis of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Signed at the Rio Summit in 1992', 18 N.C. J. Int'l L & Comm. Reg. (1993), 491
5. See UNFCCC, n. 3 above, Article 4(2)(b).
6. Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto, 10 December 1997).
7. Overall, climate researchers have estimated that full implementation of Kyoto would reduce projected warming in 2050 by only about one twentieth of one degree and projected sea-level rise by a mere 5 millimeters. See M. Parry et al., 'Buenos Aires and Kyoto Targets Do Little to Reduce Climate Change Impacts', 8:4 Global Envtl. Change (1998), 285. See also M.H. Babiker, 'The Evolution of a Climate Regime: Kyoto to Marrakech and Beyond', 5 Envtl. Sci. & Pol'y (2002), 195, at 202.
8. Decision 1/CP.13, Bali Action Plan, found in Report of the Conference of the Parties, Thirteenth Session (FCCC/CP/2007/6/Add.1, 14 March 2008), available at 〈http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_13/application/ pdf/cp_bali_action.pdf〉.
9. D. Adam, 'U.S. Balks at Bali Carbon Targets', Guardian Unlimited (10 December 2007), available at 〈http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/ 2007/dec/10/climatechange.usnews〉 J. Gupta, 'Developed Countries Declarations on Climate Change "Make No Sense,":India', India eNews (2 July 2008), available at 〈http://www.indiaenews.com/ business/20080702/129150.htm〉. The Obama Administration in the USA has pledged to 'engage vigorously' in climate change negotiations and, at the domestic level, has called for implementing a cap-and-trade programme to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the USA back to 1990 levels by 2020, and by 80% by 2050. See K. Chipman and C. Dodge, 'Obama Plan Has $79 Billion From Cap-and-Trade in 2012', Bloomberg News (26 February 2009), available at 〈http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/ news?pid=20601087&sid=aDT1Ybl.PccE&refer=home〉 Change.gov, The Obama-Biden Plan, available at 〈http://change.gov/agenda/ energy_and_environment_agenda/〉 J. Mason, 'Obama Vows Climate Action Despite Financial Crisis', Reuters (18 November 2008), available at 〈 http://www.reuters.com/article/vcCandidateFeed2/ idUSN18276285〉. Moreover, the Senate may begin debate on climate change legislation this summer. See I. Talley, 'Sen. Reid: Aiming to Debate Climate Bill by Summer', Wall Street Journal (20 February 2009), available at 〈http://online.wsj.com/article/ SB123516532284336065.html?mod=dist_smartbrief〉. However, given substantial opposition to such initiatives, especially in the midst of a deep recession, the fate of such efforts is highly uncertain. See ibid.
10. K. Anderson and A. Bows, 'Reframing the Climate Change Challenge in Light of Post-2000', Philosophical Transactions Royal Soc'y A (29 August 2008), at 15.
11. J. Eilperin, 'Carbon is Building Up in the Atmosphere Faster than Predicted', Washingtonpost.com (Washington Post, 26 September 2008), available at 〈http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/ 2008/09/25/AR2008092503989.html?hpid=moreheadlines http://www.washingtonpost.com/〉.
12. See K. Anderson and A. Bows, n. 10 above, at 18. See also A.P. Sokolov et al., Probabilistic Forecast for Twenty-First Century Climate Based on Uncertainties in Emissions (Without Policy) and Climate Parameters, MIT Joint Program on the Science and Policy of Global Changes, Rep. No. 169 (January 2009), at 24, available at 〈http://globalchange.mit.edu/ files/document/MITJPSPGC_Rpt169.pdf〉 (latest MIT assessment projects median surface warming in 2091-2100 of 5.1°C).
13. Many climatologists and policy makers have identified temperature increases of 1-2°C above pre-industrial levels as the threshold for dangerous anthropogenic interference with the atmosphere. See German Advisory Council for Global Change, New Impetus for Climate Policy: Making the Most of Germany's Dual Presidency, WBGU Policy Paper 5 (Germany Advisory Council on Global Change, 2007); Commission of European Communities, Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Limiting Global Climate Change to 2°C the Way Ahead for 2020 and Beyond COM (2007) 002 final; J. Hansen et al., 'Dangerous Human-Made Interference with Climate: A GISS Model Study', 7 Atmospheric Chemistry & Physics (2007), 2287, available at 〈http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/2007/2007_Hansen_etal_1.pdf〉.
14. See H.M. Osofsky, 'The Geography of Climate Change Litigation: Implications for Transnational Regulatory Governance', 83 Wash. U. L.Q. (2005), 1789
15. See E. Torbenson, 'Lawyers Preparing for Explosion of Climate-Related Work', The Dallas Morning News, Business Section (24 June 2007); J. Peel, 'The Role of Climate Change Litigation in Australia's Response to Global Warming', 24 EPLJ (2007), 90, at 103-104; M. Mukerjee, 'Greenhouse Suits', ScientificAmerican.com (3 February 2003), available at 〈http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id= greenhouse-suits-2003-02-03〉.
16. R. Verheyen and P. Roderick, Beyond Adaptation: The Legal Duty to Pay Compensation for Climate Change Damage, WWF-UK Climate Change Programme Discussion Paper (November 2008), at 37, available at 〈http://assets.wwf.org.uk/downloads/ beyond_adaptation_lowres.pdf〉.
17. Massachusetts v. EPA, 127 S. Ct. at 1438 (2007).
18. Native Village of Kivalina v. ExxonMobil Corp., 08-CV-1138 (ND Cal., February 2008); California v. General Motors Corp., No. 3:06-CV-05755 (ND Cal., 2006) (dismissed August 2007, appeal pending); Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, Inc., No. 1:05-CV-436 (SD Miss., 2006); State of Connecticut v. Am. Elec. Power Co., 406 F. Supp. 2d 265, 273 (SDNY, 2005).
19. Centre for Biological Diversity, Petition to List Acropora Palmata (Elkhorn Coral), Acropora Cervicornis (Staghorn Coral), and Acropora Prolifera (Fused-Staghorn Coral) as Endangered Species Under the Endangered Species Act (Centre for Biological Diversity, 2004), available at 〈http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/swcbd/SPECIES/ coral/petition.pdf〉.
20. Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Mosbacher, 488 F. Supp.2d 889 (ND Cal., 2007) (case settled in February 2009).
21. Petition to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights Seeking Relief from Violations Resulting from Global Warming Caused by Acts and Omissions of the United States (7 December 2005), at 1, available at 〈http://www.inuitcircumpolar.com/files/uploads/icc-files/ FINALPetitionICC.pdf〉.
22. Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, Letter to Paul Crowley (16 November 2006), available at 〈http://graphics8.nytimes.com/packages/ pdf/science/16commissionletter.pdf〉. The response from the Commission stated that 'the information provided does not enable us to determine whether the alleged facts would tend to characterize a violation of the rights protected by the American Declaration'. See ibid.
23. S. Watt-Cloutier et al., Letter to Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (15 January 2007), available at 〈http://www.ciel.org/ Publications/IACHR_Letter_15Jan07.pdf〉.
24. Earthjustice, Nobel Prize Nominee Testifies About Global Warming (Earthjustice, 1 March 2007), available at 〈http://www.earthjustice.org/news/press/007/ nobel-prize-nominee-testifies-about-global-warming.html〉.
25. H.M. Osofsky, 'The Inuit Petition as a Bridge? Beyond Dialectics of Climate Change and Indigenous Peoples' Rights', 31:2 Am. Indian L. Rev. (2007), 675
26. Convention Concerning the Protection of World Cultural and Natural Heritage, printed in (1972), 11 ILM 1358.
27. UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, World Heritage Information Kit 7 (UNESCO, 2008), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/documents/ publi_infokit_en.pdf〉.
28. Ibid., at 7.
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. See UNESCO, World Heritage, History of the Convention (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/169/〉 (detailing history of the World Heritage Convention).
34. See UNESCO, World Heritage, States Parties: Ratification Status (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/ statesparties/〉.
35. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Preamble.
36. Ibid., Articles 1-3.
37. Ibid., Article 1.
38. Ibid., Article 2.
39. UNESCO, Intergovernmental Commission for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the World Heritage Convention (UN Doc. WHC Doc. 08/01, January 2008), at para. 49, available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/ archive/opguide08-en.pdf〉 (Operational Guidelines).
40. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 11(1). For a description of the World Heritage Committee's responsibilities see n. 50 below and accompanying text.
41. See World Heritage Convention, ibid., Article 11(2); UNESCO, The Criteria for Selection (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria/〉.
42. UNESCO, World Heritage Convention, World Heritage List (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/〉.
43. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 4. See also Budapest Declaration on World Heritage, Twenty Sixth Session of the World Heritage Committee, WC-02/CONF.202/25, 9 (28 June 2002), at para. 2, which states that 'The properties on the World Heritage List are assets held in trust to pass on to generations of the future as their rightful inheritance', available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/ budapestdeclaration/〉.
44. See World Heritage Convention, ibid., Articles 4-5.
45. Ibid., Article 13(1).
46. Ibid., Article 15.
47. Ibid., Article 6(1). In the words of the former Chairperson of the World Heritage Committee, Ralph Slayter: 'There are some parts of the world's natural and cultural heritage which are so unique and scientifically important to the world as a whole that their conservation and protection for present and future generations is not only a matter of concern for individual nations but for the international community as well'. See R. Slatyer, 'The Origin and Evolution of the World Heritage Convention', 12 Ambio (1983), 138
48. See World Heritage Convention, ibid., Article 6(2).
49. Ibid., Article 6(3).
50. Ibid., Article 7. See the Preamble, emphasizing the need for 'an effective system of collective protection of the cultural and natural heritage of outstanding universal value, organized on a permanent basis...'.
51. Ibid., Article 8(1). While the Convention provides for 6-year terms for Committee members, most parties have chosen to only serve 4-year terms to facilitate participation by other parties. See UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, 2007-2009 (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/committeemembers/〉.
52. See World Heritage Convention, ibid., Articles 8-14.
53. Ibid., Article 11(4).
54. Ibid., Article 11(4).
55. See Operational Guidelines, n. 39 above, para. 181.
56. Ibid.
57. Ibid., paras 178-180.
58. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 11(4).
59. See Operational Guidelines, n. 39 above, para. 186.
60. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 13(1); Operational Guidelines, n. 39 above, para. 189.
61. See Operational Guidelines, ibid., para. 190.
62. Ibid., Article 191(a).
63. Ibid., Article 191(b).
64. Ibid., Article 191(c). Only one property has ever been deleted from the World Heritage List, the Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, in 2007. See World Heritage Committee, Decision 31 COM 7B (2007).
65. For a full list of the petitioners, see Climate Justice Programme, Briefing for the UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, Thirty-First Session, in World Heritage and Climate Change: Complying with International Law (2007), at 5, available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/cases/country/ intl/case-documents/unesco/unozblmtns/report.june.2007.pdf〉.
66. Technically, one of the filings with the World Heritage Committee was a report (Sydney Centre for International & Global Law, Global Climate Change and the Great Barrier Reef: Australia's Obligations under the World Heritage Convention (SCIGL, 21 September, 2004), available at 〈http://www.law.usyd.edu.au/scigl/ SCIGLFinalReport21_09_04.pdf〉), which analysed the potential impacts of climate change on a natural heritage site in Australia, the Great Barrier Reef, and the legal obligations of parties to the Convention to prevent harm to the site. However, the report was classified by the Committee as an In Danger listing petition. See Climate Justice, UNESCO: World Heritage Committee Debate and Decision (ClimateJustice, July 2005), available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/cases/country/intl/unescoglacier/ 2005Jul13/〉.
67. The USA in its position paper on the climate change petitions contended that non-States were not authorized under the Convention to file In Danger petitions. See USA, Position of the United State [sic] of America on Climate Change with Respect to the World Heritage Convention and World Heritage Sites (undated), at 4, available at 〈http://www.elaw.org/assets/word/u.s.climate.US%20paper.doc〉. While the World Heritage Convention does not expressly authorize petitions of this nature by non-governmental organizations and individuals, one of the climate change petitions cited a UNESCO, World Heritage Centre publication, The World Heritage Information Kit (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/documents/ publi_infokit_en.pdf〉. The publication indicates that private individuals, non-governmental organizations and other groups may draw the Committee's attention to existing threats. See ibid., at 18. Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of the Huascaran National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger (17 November 2004), at 17-37, available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/ cases/country/intl/unescoperu/〉.
68. Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park (16 February 2006), at 8-15, available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/cases/country/intl/ unescoglacier/〉.
69. Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System (15 November 2004), at 16-17 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/cases/case-documents/unesco/ belize-petition.doc〉.
70. Ibid., at 3-4.
71. See Sydney Centre for International & Global Law, n. 66 above.
72. S. Shearing, Here Today, Gone Tomorrow? Climate Change and World Heritage, Macquarie Law Working Paper Series (WP 2007-11, 2007), at 8.
73. See Sydney Centre for International & Global Law, n. 66 above, at 10.
74. Ibid., at 11.
75. Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of the Huascaran National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger (17 November 2004), available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/cases/ case-documents/unesco/peru-petition.doc〉.
76. Ibid., at 3-4.
77. See Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, n. 68 above, at 8-15.
78. Ibid., at 9. The petition stated that the number of glaciers in the park had been reduced to less than one-fifth of those that existed within the park's boundaries in 1850. See ibid.
79. Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Sagarmatha National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger as a Result of Climate Change and for Protective Measures and Actions (15 November 2004), at 21-24, available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/ cases/country/intl/unesconepal/〉.
80. Ibid., at 7.
81. Ibid., at 13-14.
82. Ibid., at 20.
83. Ibid., at 26-29.
84. Ibid., at 29.
85. Ibid., at 30.
86. See Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Sagarmatha National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger as a Result of Climate Change and for Protective Measures and Actions (15 November 2004), at 40, available at 〈http://www.climatelaw.org/ cases/country/intl/unesconepal/〉 Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of the Huascaran National Park in the List of World Heritage in Danger, n. 67 above, at 40; Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, n. 77 above, at 17-26; and Sydney Centre for International & Global Law, n. 66 above, at 20-30.
87. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 4.
88. China's aggregate emissions exceeded those of the USA in 2006. See Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency, 'Chinese CO2 Emissions in Perspective', Press Release (22 June 2007), available at 〈http://www.mnp.nl/en/service/pressreleases/2007/ 20070622ChineseCO2emissionsinperspective.html〉.
89. Ibid., at 20.
90. See Petition to the World Heritage Committee Requesting Inclusion of Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park, n. 77 above, at 20-21.
91. Ibid., at 21-26.
92. See Sydney Centre for International & Global Law, n. 66 above, at 4.
93. Ibid., at 5.
94. At the Committee's thirty-third meeting, held in June of 2009, the Committee did place the Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System on the In Danger list. However, the Committee stated that the primary threats to the site were mangrove cutting and excessive development. See UNESCO, World Heritage Convention, '13 New Sites have been Added to UNESCO's World Heritage List which Lost One Site While Three were Placed on the Danger List' (28 June 2009), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/ news/536〉. This finding strains credulity in the face of the solid evidence presented by the petitioners in the 2005 Belize petition that climate change was a serious, if not most serious, threat to the site's integrity.
95. UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, Examination of the State of Conservation of World Heritage Properties: State of Conservation Reports of Properties Inscribed on the World Heritage List, Decision 29 COM 7B.a (15 July 2005), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/ download.cfm?id_document=5941〉.
96. Ibid.
97. UNESCO, World Heritage Convention, World Heritage Committee, 2007-2009 (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/ committeemembers/〉.
98. Position of the United State [sic] of America on Climate Change with Respect to the World Heritage Convention and World Heritage Sites (2006), available at 〈http://www.elaw.org/node/1603〉.
99. Ibid., at 1-6.
100. UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, Issues Relating to the State of Conservation of the World Heritage Properties: The Impact of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties (WHC-06/30.COM/7.1, 26 June 2006), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/archive/2006/ whc06-30com-07.13.pdf〉.
101. Ibid., at 3.
102. Ibid., at 4-5.
103. See UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, n. 100 above, Annex 4.
104. Ibid., at 20-33.
105. Ibid., at 34-55.
106. UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, Issues Related to the State of Conservation of World Heritage Properties: The Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties, Decision 30 COM 7.1 (23 August 2006), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/471/〉.
107. The World Heritage Centre was established in 1992 as the focal point and coordinator for world heritage issues in UNESCO. Among its responsibilities are organizing annual sessions of the World Heritage Committee and its Bureau, providing advice to the parties in preparation of site nominations, and reporting on the condition of sites and emergency action that is undertaken when a site becomes threatened. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/134/〉.
108. The General Assembly of State parties to the Convention meets during the sessions of the General Conference of UNESCO. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 8(1).
109. Ibid.
110. UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, Policy Document on the Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/ activity-393-2.pdf〉 and 〈http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/ activities/documents/activity-397-2.pdf〉.
111. Ibid., at 4.
112. Ibid., at 7.
113. Ibid., at Annex 1.
114. This interpretation is bolstered by the Committee's decision in 2003 to reject a proposal by Australia that would have amended the Operational Guidelines to give parties a veto over inscription of sites within their jurisdiction on the In Danger list. See World Heritage Committee, Decisions Adopted by the World Heritage Committee at its Sixth Extraordinary Session (WHC-03/6 EXT.COM/8, 27 May 2003).
115. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Preamble.
116. Ibid., Article 11(3).
117. Ibid., Article 11(4).
118. E.J. Thorson, 'On Thin Ice: The Failure of the United States and the World Heritage Committee to Take Climate Change Mitigation Pursuant to the World Heritage Convention Seriously', 38 Envtl. L. (2008), 139, at 173. For a contrary view, see N. Affolder, 'Democratising or Demonising the World Heritage Convention?', 38:2 Victoria U. Wellington L. Rev. (2007), 341, at 355.
119. UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage (UNESCO, 2007), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/ documents/publi_climatechange.pdf〉.
120. See UNFCCC, n. 3 above, Article 2.
121. I. Burton and B. Lim, 'Achieving Adequate Adaptation in Agriculture', 70:1-2 Climatic Change (2005), 191, at 191; R.J.T. Klein et al., Portfolio Screening to Support the Mainstreaming of Adaptation to Climate Change into Development Assistance, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Working Paper 102 (2007), at 1, available at 〈http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/working_papers/ twp102.pdf〉.
122. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Division for Sustainable Development, Adaptation to Climate Change in the Context of Sustainable Development, Climate Change and Sustainable Development: A Workshop to Strengthen Research and Understanding (7-8 April 2007), at 1.
123. See n. 12 above and accompanying text.
124. R. Pielke Jr et al., 'Lifting the Taboo on Adaptation', 445 Nature (2007), 597, at 597, available at 〈http://www.nature.com/nature/ journal/v445/n7128/pdf/445597a.pdf〉.
125. Ibid.
126. V. Ramanathan and Y. Feng, 'On Avoiding Dangerous Anthropogenic Interference With the Climate System: Formidable Challenges Ahead', 105:38 Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. (2008), 14245, at 14246
127. See n. 13 above and accompanying text.
128. S. Harmeling, 'Adaptation to Climate Change - Where Do We Go From Bali?', Tiempo Climate Newswatch (20 October 2008), available at 〈http://www.tiempocyberclimate.org/newswatch/ comment080321.htm〉.
129. B. Müller, International Adaptation Finance: The Need for an Innovative and Strategic Approach (Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, June 2008), at 7, available at 〈http://www.oxfordenergy.org/pdfs/ EV42.pdf〉.
130. Economist.com, 'Adapt or Die', Economist (11 September 2008), available at 〈http://www.economist.com/world/international/ displaystory.cfm?story_id=12208005〉.
131. Australian Government, Department of the Environmental and Heritage, Australian Greenhouse Office, Climate Change Risk and Vulnerability (Australian Government, 2005), 107. See also United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, n. 122 above, at 2; Global Environment Facility, Financing Adaptation Action (GEF, 2007), at 8, available at 〈http://www.energyandenvironment.undp.org/undp/ indexAction.cfm?module=Library&action= GetFile&DocumentAttachmentID=2366〉.
132. See UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, n. 106 above, at 54.
133. Ibid.
134. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 110 above, at 6.
135. UNESCO, 'Climate Change and World Heritage', 22 World Heritage Rep. (2007), at 27, available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/documents/ publi_wh_papers_22_en.pdf〉.
136. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Article 11(4).
137. Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (Vienna, 23 May 1969), Article 53 (entered into force 27 January 1980).
138. UNESCO, World Heritage Convention, List of World Heritage in Danger (UNESCO, undated), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/en/ danger/〉.
139. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 110 above, at 3. See also UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 119 above ('As far as natural heritage is concerned, the vast majority of biomes may be adversely impacted by the effects of climate change'). See also 'World Heritage Sites Threatened by Climate Change', ABC News (21 June 2008) ('over 120 world heritage sites are threatened by climate change around the world'), available at 〈http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/06/21/2281633.htm〉.
140. See UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, n. 100 above, Annex 4, at 16. See also Convention on Biological Diversity, Proposals for the Integration of Climate Change Activities within the Programmes of Work of the Convention, Options for Mutually Supportive Actions Addressing Climate Change within the Rio Conventions and a Summary of the Findings of the Global Assessment on Peatlands, Biodiversity and Climate Change (UNEP/ CBD/SBSTTA/12/7, 7 July 2007), available at 〈http://www.cbd.int/doc/ meetings/sbstta/sbstta-12/official/sbstta-12-07-en.doc〉 ('the negative impacts of climate change on protected areas are manifested within at least 79 Natural and Mixed World Heritage Sites identified as being threatened by climate change'). Climate change is likely to pose a threat to both natural and cultural sites. The World Monuments Fund recently included climate change among the threats considered in its 2008 List of Most Endangered Sites. See Shearing, n. 72 above, at 9.
141. See n. 102 above; see also see also UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, 'Climate Change and World Heritage', 22 World Heritage Rep. (2007), 37, available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/documents/ publi_wh_papers_22_en.pdf〉.
142. United Nations General Assembly, International Law Commission, Fifty-Eighth Session, Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law (A/ CN.4/L.682, 13 April 2006), at 37.
143. J. Pauwelyn, Conflict of Norms in Public International Law: How the WTO Law Relates to Other Rules of International Law (Cambridge University Press, 2003), at 388. See also E. de Vattel, The Law of Nations: Or Principles of the Law of Nature Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns, Book II (T. & J.W. Johnson & Co., 1867), chapter XVII, paras 311, and 316.
144. While the principle was not incorporated into the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, it was acknowledged during the drafting process that a treaty might be 'special' in relation to another treaty. See Statement of the Expert Consultant (Waldock), United Nations Conference on the Law of Treaties, Second Session, Vienna, 9-22 April, Official Records (1970), 270.
145. N. Prud'homme, 'Lex Specialis: Oversimplifying a More Complex and Multifaceted Relationship?', 40:2 Isr. L. Rev. (2007), 355, at 368; Southern Bluefin Tuna (New Zealand-Japan, Australia-Japan), XXIII Rep. Int'l Arbitral Awards (4 August 2000), at 22-23, available at 〈http://untreaty.un.org/cod/riaa/cases/vol_XXIII/1-57.pdf〉 (Southern Bluefin Tuna).
146. United Nations General Assembly, International Law Commission, Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from Diversification and Expansion of International Law (A/CN.4/L.702, 3 July 2006), at 8.
147. W.A. Schabas, 'Lex Specialis? Belt and Suspenders? The Parallel Operation of Human Rights Law and the Law of Armed Conflict and the Conundrum of Jus Ad Bellum', 40:2 Isr. L. Rev. (2007), 592, at 597; see Southern Bluefin Tuna, n. 145 above, at 35 ('only where there is actual inconsistency between two treaties do questions of exclusion arise...').
148. See United Nations General Assembly, n. 142 above, at 26. See also In the Case Concerning the Right of Passage over Indian Territory (Portugal v. India) (Preliminary Objections), [1957] ICJ Rep. 142 ('It is a rule of interpretation that a text emanating from a government must, in principle, be interpreted as producing and is intended to produce effects in accordance with existing law and not in violation of it'); J. Pauwelyn, 'The Role of Public International Law in the WTO: How Far Can We Go?', 95 Am. J. Int'l L. (2001), 535, at 550; R. Jennings and A. Watts (eds), Oppenheim's International Law, 9th edn (Oxford University Press, 1992), at 1275.
149. V. Czaplinkski and G.I. Danilenko, 'Conflict of Norms in International Law', XXI Netherlands Y.B. Int'l L. (1990), 20
150. A.H. Robertson, 'Humanitarian Law and Human Rights', in C. Swinarski (ed.), Studies and Essays on International Humanitarian Law and Red Cross Principles in Honour of Jean Pictet (Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1984), at 801.
151. International Law Commission, Report on the Work of its Fifty-Seventh Session (UN Doc. A/60/10, 3 August 2005), at 457. See especially chapter XI, 'Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law'.
152. See V. Czaplinkski and G.I. Danilenko, n. 149 above, at 20-21.
153. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, n. 137 above.
154. United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Arbitral Tribunal, In the Dispute Concerning the MOX Plant, International Movements of Radioactive Materials, and the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Irish Sea, Ireland v. United Kingdom, Memorial of Ireland, Vol. 1 (2002), paras 1.65-169, available at 〈http://www.pca-cpa.org/upload/ files/Ireland%20Memorial%20Part%20I.pdf〉.
155. 'MOX Plant Case, Request for Provisional Measures Order (Ireland v. the United Kingdom) (3 December 2001), International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea', 126 Int'l L. Rev. (2005), 273, para. 50. See also Southern Bluefin Tuna, n. 145 above, at 23 ('possible that a given act may violate more than one treaty').
156. Southern Bluefin Tuna, ibid., at 40. See also ibid., at 35 ('the presumption of parallelism of jurisdictional clauses is of long standing').
157. UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego Bay, 10 December 1982) (UNCLOS).
158. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (Washington DC, 3 March 1973).
159. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, Convention on Biological Diversity (Montreal, 29 January 2000), Articles 20, 22 and Preamble, available at 〈http://www.biodiv.org/biosafety/protocol.asp〉.
160. See Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, n. 137 above, Article 30(2): 'When a treaty specifies that it is subject to, or that it is not to be considered as incompatible with, an earlier or later treaty, the provisions of that other treaty prevail'.
161. See United Nations, General Assembly, n. 146 above, at 13. See also G. Arangio-Ruiz, Fourth Report on State Responsibility, Doc. A/CN.4/444', II:1 Y.B. Int'l L. Comm'n (1992), 40-41, available at 〈http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/publications/yearbooks/Ybkvolumes(e)/ ILC_1992_v2_p1_e.pdf〉.
162. See UNFCCC, n. 3 above, Article 3(3).
163. Ibid., Article 3(1).
164. Ibid., Article 2.
165. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 141 above.
166. See W.A. Schabas, n. 147 above, at 598.
167. A. Fischer-Lescano and G. Teubner, 'Regime-Collisions: The Vain Search for Legal Unity in the Fragmentation of Global Law', 25:4 Mich. J. Int'l L. (2004), 999
168. See UNESCO, World Heritage Committee, n. 95 above, at 4.
169. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 110 above, at 9.
170. See E.J. Thorson, n. 118 above, at 13.
171. See S. Shearing, n. 72 above, at 17-18.
172. See n. 137 above.
173. UNESCO, Background Document, Prepared for Working Group Meeting to Develop the Policy Paper on Impacts of Climate Change on World Heritage Properties, Contribution from the IUCN's Academy of Environmental Law Environmental Law Programme (5-7 January 2007), at 20 and 40, available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/documents/ activity-471-1.doc〉.
174. See World Heritage Convention, n. 26 above, Preamble.
175. Ibid., Article 5(1) (emphasis added).
176. Ibid., Article 6(3).
177. A. Strauss, 'Toward an International Law of Climate Change: Utilizing a Model of International Tribunals as Law-Makers', in W.C.G. Burns and H. Osofsky (eds), Adjudicating Climate Change: Sub-National, National, and Supra-National Approaches (2009) (in press), at 107.
178. D. Horowitz, 'S outhern Bluefin Tuna Case (Australia And New Zealand v. Japan) (Jurisdiction and Admissibility); The Catch of Poseidon's Trident: The Fate of High Seas Fisheries in the Southern Bluefin Tuna Case', 26 Melbourne U. L. Rev., available at 〈http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MULR/2001/26.html〉.
179. R.J. Silk Jr, 'Nonbinding Dispute Resolution Processes in Fisheries Conflicts: Fish Out of Water?', 16 Ohio St. J. on Disp. Resol. (2001), 791, at 800-801.
180. See n. 140 above and accompanying text.
181. Petition to the Thirty-First Session of the World Heritage Committee, Requesting Inscription of the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area in the List of World Heritage in Danger and for Protective Measures and Actions (2007), available at 〈http://climatelaw.org/cases/country/ intl/cases/case-documents/unesco/unozblmtns/body.pdf〉.
182. Ibid., at 15-16.
183. Ibid., at 17.
184. Ibid., at 27-41.
185. EarthJustice and Australian Climate Justice Programme, Petition to the World Heritage Committee, The Role of Black Carbon in Endangering World Heritage Sites Threatened by Glacial Melt and Sea Level Rise (29 January 2009), available at 〈http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/activities/ documents/activity-393-4.pdf〉.
186. V. Ramanathan and G. Carmichael, 'Global and Regional Climate Changes Due to Black Carbon', 1 Nature Geosci. (2008), 221
187. J. Lash, 'Black Carbon an Easy Target for Climate Change', Policy Innovations (Carnegie Council, 2 February 2009), available at 〈http://www.policyinnovations.org/ideas/innovations/data/ 000084〉. By contrast, long-lived greenhouse gases have atmospheric lifetimes ranging from 10 years for methane to 100 years or more for nitrous oxide and carbon dioxide. See EarthJustice and Australian Climate Justice Programme, n. 185, at 4.
188. Black carbon particulates directly absorb sunlight, heating the atmosphere. Moreover, black carbon increases cloud droplet concentrations and thicker lower-level clouds, which also traps the Earth's radiated heat. See EarthJustice and Australian Climate Justice Programme, n. 185 above, at 5.
189. See V. Ramanathan and G. Carmichael, n. 186 above, at 222; World Resources Institute, EarthTrends, Black Carbon Emerges as a Main Contributor to Global Warming (30 March 2008), available at 〈http://earthtrends.wri.org/updates/node/295〉. Black carbon can circulate from the equator to the poles prior to deposition by precipitation. See C.S. Zender, Arctic Climate Effects of Black Carbon, Testimony to the Oversight and Government Reform Committee, United States House of Representatives (17 October 2007).
190. See EarthJustice and Australian Climate Justice Programme, n. 185, at 5.
191. Ibid., at 7.
192. J. Hansen and L. Nazarenko, 'Soot Climate Forcing Via Snow and Ice Albedos', 101:2 Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. (2004), 423
193. See J. Lash, n. 187 above.
194. See EarthJustice and Australian Climate Justice Programme, n. 185 above, at 7-34.
195. Ibid., at 38-41.
196. Ibid., at 41-42. Unlike in the case of many of the other climate-focused petitions where on-site efforts to mitigate greenhouse gases would do little to address the threat, 'measures to reduce emissions of black carbon emissions at or near to threatened World Heritage sites can be particularly effective': Ibid., at 40.
197. Ibid., at 42.
198. Ibid., at 43.
199. Ibid., at 36.
200. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 110 above, at 7.
201. Ibid.
202. See UNESCO, World Heritage Centre, n. 27 above, at 5.