Risk stratification for acute pulmonary embolism

JNCCN Journal of the National Comprehensive Cancer Network

Volumn 9, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 800-810

  Kline, Jeffrey A ^a   Miller, David W ^a  

^a CAROLINAS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Acute pulmonary embolism; Anticoagulation; Heparin; Respiratory failure; Risk stratification

Indexed keywords

ALTEPLASE; AMINO TERMINAL PRO BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; BRAIN NATRIURETIC PEPTIDE; HEPARIN; LOW MOLECULAR WEIGHT HEPARIN; PROTAMINE; TENECTEPLASE; TROPONIN;

ANTICOAGULATION; ARTICLE; CLINICAL DECISION MAKING; DEATH; EMBOLECTOMY; FIBRINOLYSIS; HUMAN; LUNG EMBOLISM; MORTALITY; PROGNOSIS; RESPIRATORY FAILURE; RISK ASSESSMENT; SHOCK; SURVIVAL;

EID: 79960173356     PISSN: 15401405     EISSN: 15401413     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.6004/jnccn.2011.0065     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Kline JA, Steuerwald MT, Marchick MR, et al. Prospective evaluation of right ventricular function and functional status six months after acute submassive pulmonary embolism: frequency of persistent or subsequent elevation in estimated pulmonary artery pressure. Chest 2009;136:1202-1210.
2. Kline JA, Hernandez-Nino J, Jones AE, et al. Prospective study of the clinical features and outcomes of emergency department patients with delayed diagnosis of pulmonary embolism. Acad Emerg Med 2007;14:592-598. (Pubitemid 46929085)
3. Pollack CV, Schreiber D, Goldhaber SZ, et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: initial report of EMPEROR (Multicenter Emergency Medicine Pulmonary Embolism in the Real World Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:700-706.
4. Laporte S, Mismetti P, Decousus H, et al. Clinical predictors for fatal pulmonary embolism in 15,520 patients with venous thromboembolism: findings from the Registro Informatizado de la Enfermedad TromboEmbolica venosa (RIETE) Registry. Circulation 2008;117:1711-1716. (Pubitemid 351482603)
5. Aujesky D, Hughes R, Jimenez D. Short-term prognosis of pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2009;7(Suppl 1):318-321.
6. Aujesky D, Obrosky DS, Stone RA, et al. Derivation and validation of a prognostic model for pulmonary embolism. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;172:1041-1046. (Pubitemid 41476544)
7. Wicki J, Perrier A, Perneger T, et al. Predicting adverse outcome in patients with acute pulmonary embolism: a risk score. Thromb Haemost 2000;84:548-552.
8. Jaff MR, McMurtry MS, Archer SL, et al. Management of massive and submassive pulmonary embolism, iliofemoral deep vein thrombosis, and chronic thromboembolic pulmonary hypertension: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2011;123;1788-1830.
9. Torbicki A, Perrier A, Konstantinides S, et al. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism: the Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Acute Pulmonary Embolism of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2008;29:2276-2315.
10. British Thoracic Society Standards of Care Committee Pulmonary Embolism Guideline Development Group. British Thoracic Society guidelines for the management of suspected acute pulmonary embolism. Thorax 2003;58:470-483.
11. Kearon C, Kahn SR, Agnelli G, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease: American College of Chest Physicians evidence-based clinical practice guidelines, 8th ed. Chest 2008;133(6 Suppl):454S-545S.
12. Kasper W, Konstantinides S, Geibel A, et al. Management strategies and determinants of outcome in acute major pulmonary embolism: results of a multicenter registry. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;30:1165-1171.
13. Goldhaber SZ, Visani L, De Rosa M. Acute pulmonary embolism: clinical outcomes in the international cooperative pulmonary embolism registry (ICOPER). Lancet 1999;353:1386-1389. (Pubitemid 29192409)
14. Pollack CV, Schreiber D, Goldhaber SZ, et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: initial report of EMPEROR (Multicenter Emergency Medicine Pulmonary Embolism in the Real World Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:700-706.
15. Otero R, Trujillo-Santos J, Cayuela A, et al. Haemodynamically unstable pulmonary embolism in the RIETE Registry: systolic blood pressure or shock index? Eur Respir J 2007;30:1111-1116.
16. Kline JA, Hernandez J, Newgard CD, et al. Use of pulse oximetry to predict in-hospital complications in normotensive patients with pulmonary embolism. Am J Med 2003;115:203-208. (Pubitemid 37338145)
17. Courtney DM, Kline JA. Identification of prearrest clinical factors associated with outpatient fatal pulmonary embolism. Acad Emerg Med 2001;8:1136-1142. (Pubitemid 33108204)
18. Spencer FA, Goldberg RJ, Lessard D, et al. Factors associated with adverse outcomes in outpatients presenting with pulmonary embolism: the Worcester Venous Thromboembolism Study. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2010;3:390-394.
19. McIntyre KM, Sasahara AA. The hemodynamic response to pulmonary embolism in patients without prior cardiopulmonary disease. Am J Cardiol 1971;28:288-295.
20. Heit JA, Silverstein MD, Mohr DN, et al. Predictors of survival after deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a population-based, cohort study. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:445-453. (Pubitemid 29108909)
21. Horlander KT, Mannino DM, Leeper KV. Pulmonary embolism mortality in the United States, 1979-1998: an analysis using multiple-cause mortality data. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1711-1717.
22. Stein PD, Kayali F, Olson RE. Estimated case fatality rate of pulmonary embolism, 1979 to 1998. Am J Cardiol 2004;93:1197-1199.
23. Carson JL, Kelley MA, Duff A. The clinical course of pulmonary embolism. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1240-1245.
24. Galanaud JP, Quenet S, Rivron-Guillot K, et al. Comparison of the clinical history of symptomatic isolated distal deep-vein thrombosis vs. proximal deep vein thrombosis in 11 086 patients. J Thromb Haemost 2009;7:2028-2034.
25. Stein PD, Beemath A, Meyers FA, et al. Pulmonary embolism as a cause of death in patients who died with cancer. Am J Med 2006;119:163-165. (Pubitemid 43151483)
26. Kuderer NM, Ortel TL, Francis CW. Impact of venous thromboembolism and anticoagulation on cancer and cancer survival. J Clin Oncol 2009;27:4902-4911.
27. Manly DA, Wang J, Glover SL, et al. Increased microparticle tissue factor activity in cancer patients with venous thromboembolism. Thromb Res 2010;125:511-512.
28. Garcia RP, Eikenboom HC, Tesselaar ME, et al. Plasma levels of microparticle-associated tissue factor activity in patients with clinically suspected pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res 2010;126:345-349.
29. Ay C, Freyssinet JM, Sailer T, et al. Circulating procoagulant microparticles in patients with venous thromboembolism. Thromb Res 2009;123:724-726.
30. Thaler J, Ay C, Weinstabl H, et al. Circulating procoagulant microparticles in cancer patients. Ann Hematol 2010;90:447-453.
31. Trujillo-Santos J, Nieto JA, Tiberio G, et al. Predicting recurrences or major bleeding in cancer patients with venous thromboembolism. Findings from the RIETE Registry. Thromb Haemost 2008;100:435-439.
32. Gross CP, Galusha DH, Krumholz HM. The impact of venous thromboembolism on risk of death or hemorrhage in older cancer patients. J Gen Intern Med 2007;22:321-326. (Pubitemid 46941220)
33. Chan CM, Woods C, Shorr AF. The validation and reproducibility of the pulmonary embolism severity index. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:1509-1514.
34. Jakobsson C, Jimenez D, Gomez V, et al. Validation of a clinical algorithm to identify low-risk patients with pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:1242-1247.
35. Donze J, Le GG, Fine MJ, et al. Prospective validation of the Pulmonary Embolism Severity Index. A clinical prognostic model for pulmonary embolism. Thromb Haemost 2008;100:943-948.
36. Aujesky D, Perrier A, Roy PM, et al. Validation of a clinical prognostic model to identify low-risk patients with pulmonary embolism. J Intern Med 2007;261:597-604. (Pubitemid 46835983)
37. Murugappan M, Johnson J, Gage BF, et al. Home management exclusion (HOME) criteria for initial treatment of acute pulmonary embolism. Amer J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177.
38. Khorana AA. Venous thromboembolism and prognosis in cancer. Thromb Res 2010;125:490-493.
39. Watts JA, Zagorski J, Gellar MA, et al. Cardiac inflammation contributes to right ventricular dysfunction following experimental pulmonary embolism in rats. J Mol Cell Cardiol 2006;41:296-307. (Pubitemid 44080220)
40. Daniel KR, Courtney DM, Kline JA. Assessment of cardiac stress from massive pulmonary embolism with 12-lead electrocardiography. Chest 2001;120:474-481. (Pubitemid 32881264)
41. Toosi MS, Merlino JD, Leeper KV. Electrocardiographic score and short-term outcomes of acute pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol 2007;100:1172-1176. (Pubitemid 47404476)
42. Dellas C, Muls M, Lankeit M, et al. Elevated heart-type fatty acid-binding protein levels on admission predict an adverse outcome in normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism. J Amer Coll Cardiol 2010;55:2150-2157.
43. Puls M, Dellas C, Lankeit M, et al. Heart-type fatty acid-binding protein permits early risk stratification of pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2006;28:224-229.
44. Kline JA, Zeitouni R, Marchick MR, et al. Comparison of 8 biomarkers for prediction of right ventricular hypokinesis 6 months after submassive pulmonary embolism. Am Heart J 2008;156:308-314.
45. Becattini C, Vedovati MC, Agnelli G. Prognostic value of troponins in acute pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. Circulation 2007;116:427-433. (Pubitemid 47196548)
46. Klok FA, Mos IC, Huisman MV. Brain-type natriuretic peptide levels in the prediction of adverse outcome in patients with pulmonary embolism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;178:425-430.
47. Sanchez O, Trinquart L, Colombet I, et al. Prognostic value of right ventricular dysfunction in patients with haemodynamically stable pulmonary embolism: a systematic review. Eur Heart J 2008;29:1569-1577. (Pubitemid 351881988)
48. Lega JC, Lacasse Y, Lakhal L, Provencher S. Natriuretic peptides and troponins in pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis. Thorax 2009;64:869-875.
49. Bova C, Pesavento R, Marchiori A, et al. Risk stratification and outcomes in hemodynamically stable patients with acute pulmonary embolism. A prospective, multicentre, cohort study with three months of follow-up. J Thromb Haemost 2009;7:938-944.
50. Jimenez D, Uresandi F, Otero R, et al. Troponin-based risk stratification of patients with acute nonmassive pulmonary embolism: systematic review and metaanalysis. Chest 2009;136:974-982.
51. Jimenez D, Diaz G, Molina J, et al. Troponin I and risk stratification of patients with acute nonmassive pulmonary embolism. Eur Respir J 2008;31:847-853.
52. Sohne M, Ten WM, Boomsma F, et al. Brain natriuretic peptide in hemodynamically stable acute pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2006;4:552-556.
53. Kline JA, Hernandez J, Rose G, et al. Surrogate markers for adverse outcomes in normotensive patients with pulmonary embolism. Crit Care Med 2006;34:2773-2180.
54. Giannitsis E, Katus HA. Risk stratification in patients with confirmed pulmonary embolism: what to do when echocardiography is not available. Crit Care Med 2006;34:2857-2858. (Pubitemid 44610960)
55. Toosi MS, Merlino JD, Leeper KV. Prognostic value of the Shock Index along with transthoracic echocardiography in risk stratification of patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol 2008;1:700-705. (Pubitemid 351625098)
56. ten Wolde M, Sohne M, Quak E, et al. Prognostic value of echocardiographically assessed right ventricular dysfunction in patients with pulmonary embolism. Arch Intern Med 164:1685-1689.
57. Gibson NS, Sohne M, Buller HR, et al. Prognostic value of echocardiography and spiral computed tomography in patients with pulmonary embolism. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2005;11:380-384. (Pubitemid 41291079)
58. Kucher N, Rossi E, De RM, Goldhaber SZ. Prognostic role of echocardiography among patients with acute pulmonary embolism and a systolic arterial pressure of 90 mm Hg or higher. Arch Intern Med 2005;165:1777-1781. (Pubitemid 41138967)
59. McConnell MV, Solomon SD, Rayan ME, et al. Regional right ventricular dysfunction detected by echocardiography in acute pulmonary emboilsm. Am J Cardiol 1996;78:469-473. (Pubitemid 26277029)
60. Aviram G, Rogowski O, Gotler Y, et al. Real time risk stratification of patients with acute pulmonary embolism by grading the reflux of contrast into the inferior vena cava on computerized tomographic pulmonary angiography. J Thromb Haemost 2008;6:1488-1493.
61. Quiroz R, Kucher N, Schoepf UJ, et al. Right ventricular enlargement on chest computed tomography: prognostic role in acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2004;109:2401-2404. (Pubitemid 38679558)
62. Ghanima W, Abdelnoor M, Holmen LO, et al. The association between the proximal extension of the clot and the severity of pulmonary embolism (PE): a proposal for a new radiological score for PE. J Intern Med 2007;261:74-81. (Pubitemid 46046474)
63. Golpe R, Perez-de-Llano LA, Farinas MC. Central thromboembolism as a predictor of right ventricle dysfunction in hemodynamically stable pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res 2011;127:386.
64. Aviram G, Steinvil A, Berliner S, et al. The association between the embolic load and atrial size in acute pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9:293-299.
65. Berghaus TM, Haeckel T, Behr W, et al. Central thromboembolism is a possible predictor of right heart dysfunction in normotensive patients with acute pulmonary embolism. Thromb Res 2010;126:e201-205.
66. Grifoni S, Vanni S, Magazzini S, et al. Association of persistent right ventricular dysfunction at hospital discharge after acute pulmonary embolism with recurrent thromboembolic events. Archives of Internal Medicine 2006;166:2151-2156. (Pubitemid 44631405)
67. Kline JA, Zeitouni R, Hernandez-Nino J, Rose GA. Size isn't everything. J Thromb Haemost 2008;6:397-399.
68. Subramaniam RM, Mandrekar J, Chang C, et al. Pulmonary embolism outcome: a prospective evaluation of CT pulmonary angiographic clot burden score and ECG score. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2008;190:1599-1604. (Pubitemid 351798522)
69. Binder L, Pieske B, Olschewski M, et al. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide or troponin testing followed by echocardiography for risk stratification of acute pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2005;112:1573-1579. (Pubitemid 41324518)
70. Logeart D, Lecuyer L, Thabut G, et al. Biomarker-based strategy for screening right ventricular dysfunction in patients with nonmassive pulmonary embolism. Intensive Care Med 2007;33:286-292. (Pubitemid 46221234)
71. Scridon T, Scridon C, Skali H, et al. Prognostic significance of troponin elevation and right ventricular enlargement in acute pulmonary embolism. Am J Cardiol 2005;96:303-305. (Pubitemid 40978593)
72. Kostrubiec M, Pruszczyk P, Bochowicz A, et al. Biomarker-based risk assessment model in acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2005;26:2166-2192.
73. Erkens PM, Prins MH. Fixed dose subcutaneous low molecular weight heparins versus adjusted dose unfractionated heparin for venous thromboembolism. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010;9:CD001100.
74. Erkens PM, Gandara E, Wells P, et al. Safety of outpatient treatment in acute pulmonary embolism. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:2412-2417.
75. Baglin T. Fifty percent of patients with pulmonary embolism can be treated as outpatients. J Thromb Haemost 2010;8:2404-2405.
76. Worster A, Smith C, Silver S, et al. Evidence-based emergency medicine/critically appraised topic. Thrombolytic therapy for submassive pulmonary embolism? Ann Em Med 2007;50:78-84.
77. Stevinson BG, Hernandez-Nino J, Rose G, Kline JA. Echocardiographic and functional cardiopulmonary problems 6 months after first-time pulmonary embolism in previously healthy patients. Eur Heart J 2007;28:2517-2524. (Pubitemid 47614277)
78. Klok FA, van Kralingen KW, van Dijk AP, et al. Quality of life in long-term survivors of acute pulmonary embolism. Chest 2010;138:1432-1440.
79. Fasullo S, Scalzo S, Maringhini G, et al. Six-month echocardiographic study in patients with submassive pulmonary embolism and right ventricle dysfunction: comparison of thrombolysis with heparin. Am J Med Sci 2011;341:33-39.
80. Crowther MA, Berry LR, Monagle PT, Chan AK. Mechanisms responsible for the failure of protamine to inactivate low-molecular-weight heparin. Br J Haematol 2002;116:178-186. (Pubitemid 34122079)
81. Wan S, Quinlan DJ, Agnelli G, Eikelboom JW. Thrombolysis compared with heparin for the initial treatment of pulmonary embolism: a meta-analysis of the randomized controlled trials. Circulation 2004;110:744-749. (Pubitemid 39056276)
82. Agnelli G, Parise P. Bolus thrombolysis in venous thromboembolism. Chest 1992;101(4 Suppl):172S-82S.
83. Gosselin MV, Rubin GD, Leung AN, et al. Unsuspected pulmonary embolism: prospective detection on routine helical CT scans. Radiology 1998;208:209-215.
84. Douma RA, Kok MG, Verberne LM, et al. Incidental venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: prevalence and consequence. Thromb Res 2010;125:e306-309.
85. O'Connell C, Razavi P, Ghalichi M, et al. Unsuspected pulmonary emboli adversely impact survival in patients with cancer undergoing routine staging multi-row detector computed tomography scanning. J Thromb Haemost 2011;9:305-311.
86. O'Connell CL, Boswell WD, Duddalwar V, et al. Unsuspected pulmonary emboli in cancer patients: clinical correlates and relevance. J Clin Oncol 2006;24:4928-4932. (Pubitemid 46630922)
87. Verstraete M, Miller GA, Bounameaux H, et al. Intravenous and intrapulmonary recombinant tissue-type plasminogen activator in the treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism. Circulation 1988;77:353-360. (Pubitemid 18060044)
88. Schmitz-Rode T, Janssen U, Duda S, et al. Massive pulmonary embolism: percutaneous emergency treatment by pigtail rotation catheter. J Am Coll Cardiol 2000;36:375-380. (Pubitemid 30623995)
89. Schmitz-Rode T, Janssens U, Schild H, et al. Fragmentation of massive pulmonary embolism using a pigtail rotation catheter. Chest 1998;114:1427-1436. (Pubitemid 28527421)
90. Zeni PT Jr, Blank BG, Peeler DW. Use of rheolytic thrombectomy in treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism. J Vasc Interv Radiol 2003;14:1511-1515. (Pubitemid 37517627)
91. Lin PH, Annambhotla S, Bechara CF, et al. Comparison of percutaneous ultrasound-accelerated thrombolysis versus catheter-directed thrombolysis in patients with acute massive pulmonary embolism. Vascular 2009;17(Suppl 3): S137-147.
92. Sabiston D. Trendelenburg's classic work on the operative treatment of pulmonary embolism. Ann Thorac Surg 1983;35:570-574.
93. Stein PD, Alnas M, Beemath A, et al. Outcome of pulmonary embolectomy. Am J Cardiol 2007;99:421-423. (Pubitemid 46149562)