Review of therapeutic advances in diabetic retinopathy

Therapeutic Advances in Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 2, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 39-53

  Chen, Carolyn ^a   Shah, Chirag P ^b  

^a NEW ENGLAND EYE CENTER   (United States)

^b OPHTHALMIC CONSULTANTS OF BOSTON   (United States)

Author keywords

bevacizumab; diabetic macular edema; diabetic retinopathy; proliferative diabetic retinopathy; vision loss; vitrectomy

Indexed keywords

ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID PLUS DIPYRIDAMOLE; AFLIBERCEPT; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; BEVACIZUMAB; CORTICOSTEROID; DEXAMETHASONE; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; FENOFIBRATE; FLUOCINOLONE ACETONIDE; HEMOGLOBIN A1C; HYALURONIDASE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; ILUVIEN; ORAL ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; PEGAPTANIB; PLACEBO; RANIBIZUMAB; RUBOXISTAURIN; SIMVASTATIN; TICLOPIDINE; TRIAMCINOLONE; TRIAMCINOLONE ACETONIDE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN INHIBITOR;

ANTIANGIOGENIC ACTIVITY; ANTIINFLAMMATORY ACTIVITY; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CATARACT; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COLON CANCER; DIABETIC HYPERTENSION; DIABETIC MACULAR EDEMA; DIABETIC RETINOPATHY; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG DOSE COMPARISON; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG HALF LIFE; DRUG IMPLANT; DRUG SAFETY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; ENDOPHTHALMITIS; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GLAUCOMA; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HEMOGLOBIN BLOOD LEVEL; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; INFECTIOUS ENDOPHTHALMITIS; INFLAMMATION; INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; LASER COAGULATION; LENS DISEASE; MORBIDITY; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NONHUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PAN RETINAL PHOTOCOAGULATION; PATHOGENESIS; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RETINA DETACHMENT; RETINA MACULA AGE RELATED DEGENERATION; RETINA NEOVASCULARIZATION; RETINA VEIN OCCLUSION; REVIEW; TREATMENT INDICATION; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; UVEITIS; VISUAL ACUITY; VISUAL IMPAIRMENT; VITRECTOMY; VITREOUS HEMORRHAGE;

EID: 79960036131     PISSN: 20420188     EISSN: 20420196     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/2042018810396750     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. Abraham P. Yue H. Wilson L. (2010) Randomized, double-masked, sham-controlled trial of ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: PIER study year 2. Am J Ophthalmol 150: 315–324.
2. Aiello L.P. Avery R.L. Arrigg P.G. Keyt B.A. Jampel H.D. Shah S.T. et al (1994) Vascular endothelial growth factor in ocular fluid of patients with diabetic retinopathy and other retinal disorders. N Engl J Med 331: 1480–1487.
3. Aiello L.P. Bursell S.E. Clermont A. Duh E. Ishii H. Takagi C. et al (1997) Vascular endothelial growth factor-induced retinal permeability is mediated by protein kinase C in vivo and suppressed by an orally effective β-isoform-selective inhibitor. Diabetes 46: 1473–1480.
4. Antonetti D.A. Barber A.J. Khin S. Lieth E. Tarbell J.M. Gardner T.W. Penn State Retina Research Group. (1998) Vascular permeability in experimental diabetes is associated with reduced endothelial occludin content: vascular endothelial growth factor decreases occludin in retinal endothelial cells. Diabetes 47: 1953–1959.
5. Brown D.M. Michels M. Kaiser P.K. Heier J.S. Sy J.P. Ianchulev T. ANCHOR Study Group. (2009) Ranibizumab versus verteporfin photodynamic therapy for neovascular age-related macular degeneration: Two-year results of the ANCHOR study. Ophthalmology 116: 57–65.e5.
6. Campochiaro P.A. Hafiz G. Shah S.M. Bloom S. Brown D.M. Busquets M. et al Famous Study Group. (2010) Sustained ocular delivery of fluocinolone acetonide by an intravitreal insert. Ophthalmology 117: 1393–1399.
7. Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007) National Diabetes Fact Sheet. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/pdf/ndfs_2007.pdf.
8. Chaturvedi N. Porta M. Klein R. Orchard T. Fuller J. Parving H.H. Bilous R. Sjølie A.K. DIRECT Programme Study Group. (2008) Effect of candesartan on prevention (DIRECT-Prevent 1) and progression (DIRECT-Protect 1) of retinopathy in type 1 diabetes: randomised, placebo-controlled trials. Lancet 372: 1394–1402.
9. Chaturvedi N. Sjolie A.K. Stephenson J.M. Abrahamian H. Keipes M. Castellarin A. et al The EUCLID Study Group. (1998) Effect of lisinopril on progression of retinopathy in normotensive people with type 1 diabetes. EURODIAB controlled trial of lisinopril in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Lancet 351: 28–31.
10. Chew E.Y. Ambrosius W.T. Davis M.D. Danis R.P. Gangaputra S. Greven C.M. et al ACCORD Eye Study Group. (2010) Effects of medical therapies on retinopathy progression in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 363: 233–244.
11. Chew E.Y. Klein M.L. Murphy R.P. Remaley N.A. Ferris F.L. (1995) Effects of aspirin on vitreous/preretinal hemorrhage in patients with diabetes mellitus: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report no. 20. Arch Ophthalmol 113: 52–55.
12. Conway B.N. Miller R.G. Klein R. Orchard T.J. (2009) Prediction of proliferative diabetic retinopathy with hemoglobin level. Arch Ophthalmol 127: 1494–1499.
13. Cunningham E.T. Jr Adamis A.P. Altaweel M. Aiello L.P. Bressler N.M. D'Amico D.J. et al Macugen Diabetic Retinopathy Study Group. (2005) A phase II randomized double-masked trial of pegaptanib, an anti-vascular endothelial growth factor aptamer, for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 112: 1747–1757.
14. Curtis L.H. Hammill B.G. Schulman K.A. Cousins S.W. (2010) Risks of mortality, myocardial infarction, bleeding, and stroke associated with therapies for age-related macular degeneration. Arch Ophthalmol 128: 1273–1279.
15. Davis M.D. Sheetz M.J. Aiello L.P. Milton R.C. Danis R.P. Zhi X. et al PKC-DRS2 Study Group. (2009) Effect of ruboxistaurin on the visual acuity decline associated with long-standing diabetic macular edema. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 50: 1–4.
16. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. (1993) The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 329: 977–986.
17. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Research Group. (2008) Prolonged effect of intensive therapy on the risk of retinopathy complications in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: 10 years after the Diabetes Control and Complications trial. Arch Ophthalmol 126: 1707–1715.
18. Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network. (2007) A phase II randomized clinical trial of intravitreal bevacizumab for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 114: 1860–1867.
19. Diabetic Retinopathy Clinical Research Network. (2008) A randomized trial comparing intravitreal triamcinolone acetonide and focal/grid photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema. Ophthalmology 115: 1447–1449.
20. Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. (1976) Preliminary report on effects of photocoagulation therapy. Am J Ophthalmol 81: 383–396.
21. Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. (1987) Indications for photocoagulation treatment of diabetic retinopathy, report no. 14. Int Ophthalmol Clin 27: 239–253.
22. Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group. (1985) Early vitrectomy for severe vitreous hemorrhage in diabetic retinopathy: Two-year results of a randomized trial: Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 2. Arch Ophthalmol 103: 1644–1652.
23. Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group. (1988 a) Early vitrectomy for severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy in eyes with useful vision: Results of a randomized trial – Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 3. Ophthalmology 95: 1307–1320.
24. Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group. (1988 b) Early vitrectomy for severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy in eyes with useful vision: Clinical application of results of a randomized trial – Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 4. Ophthalmology 95: 1321–1334.
25. Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study Research Group. (1990) Early vitrectomy for severe vitreous hemorrhage in diabetic retinopathy: Four-year results of a randomized trial: Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study report 5. Arch Ophthalmol 108: 958–964.
26. Dipyridamole, Aspirin, Microangiopathy of Diabetes (DAMAD) Study Group. (1989) Effect of aspirin alone and aspirin plus dipyridamole in early diabetic retinopathy: A multicenter randomized controlled clinical trial. Diabetes 38: 491–498.
27. Do, D.V. (2010) Diabetic macular edema and VEGF Trap-Eye: Investigation of clinical impact: Phase 2 study in diabetic macular edema. Presented at American Academy of Ophthalmology, 17 October 2010.
28. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. (1985) Photocoagulation for diabetic macular edema: Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study report number 1. Arch Ophthalmol 103: 1796–1806.
29. Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group. (1991) Effects of aspirin treatment on diabetic retinopathy: ETDRS report number 8. Ophthalmology 98(Suppl): 757–765.
30. Egger M. Davey Smith G. Stettler C. Diem P. (1997) Risk of adverse effects of intensified treatment in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis. Diabet Med 14: 919–928.
31. Faghihi H. Roohipoor R. Mohammadi S.F. Hojat-Jalali K. Mirshahi A. Lashay A. et al (2008) Intravitreal bevacizumab versus combined bevacizumab–triamcinolone versus macular laser photocoagulation in diabetic macular edema. Eur J Ophthalmol 18: 941–948.
32. Ferris F.L. III Patz A. (1984) Macular edema: A complication of diabetic retinopathy. Surv Ophthalmol 28(Suppl): 452–461.
33. Figueroa M.S. Contreras I. Noval S. (2009) Anti-angiogenic drugs as an adjunctive therapy in the surgical treatment of diabetic retinopathy. Curr Diabetes Rev 5: 52–56.
34. Fong D.S. Girach A. Boney A. (2007) Visual side effects of successful scatter laser photocoagulation surgery for proliferative diabetic retinopathy: A literature review. Retina 27: 816–824.
35. Funatsu H. Yamashita H. Noma H. Mimura T. Yamashita T. Hori S. (2002) Increased levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin-6 in the aqueous humor of diabetics with macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 133: 70–77.
36. Ghosh F. Gjörloff K. (2005) Protein kinase C expression in the rabbit retina after laser photocoagulation. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 243: 803–810.
37. Gillies M.C. Sutter F.K. Simpson J.M. Larsson J. Ali H. Zhu M. (2006) Intravitreal triamcinolone for refractory diabetic macular edema: Two-year results of a doublemasked, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Ophthalmology 113: 1533–1538.
38. Goyal S. Lavalley M. Subramanian M.L. (2010) Meta-analysis and review on the effect of bevacizumab in diabetic macular edema. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmology 28: July (E-pub).
39. Gragoudas E.S. Adamis A.P. Cunningham E.T. Jr Feinsod M. Guyer D.R. VEGF Inhibition Study in Ocular Neovascularization Clinical Trial Group. (2004) Pegaptanib for neovascular agerelated macular degeneration. N Engl J Med 351: 2805–2816.
40. Gupta A. Gupta V. Thapar S. Bhansali A. (2004) Lipid-lowering drug atorvastatin as an adjunct in the management of diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 137: 675–682.
41. Haller J.A. Kuppermann B.D. Blumenkranz M.S. Williams G.A. Weinberg D.V. et al (2010) Randomized controlled trial of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with diabetic macular edema. Dexamethasone DDS Phase II Study Group. Arch Ophthalmol 128: 289–299.
42. Harbour W. Smiddy W.E. Flynn H.W. Jr Rubsamen P.E. (1996) Vitrectomy for diabetic macular edema associated with posterior hyaloid thickening and contraction. Am J Ophthalmol 121: 405–413.
43. Holekamp N.M. Shui Y.B. Beebe D.C. (2005) Vitrectomy surgery increases oxygen exposure to the lens: A possible mechanism for nuclear cataract formation. Am J Ophthalmol 139: 302–310.
44. Ishii H. Koya D. King G.L. (1997) Protein kinase C activation and its role in the development of vascular complications in diabetes mellitus. J Mol Med 76: 21–31.
45. Keech A.C. Mitchell P. Summanen P.A. O'Day J. Davis T.M. Moffitt M.S. et al FIELD study investigators. (2007) Effect of fenofibrate on the need for laser treatment for diabetic retinopathy (FIELD study): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet 370: 1687–1697.
46. Klein R. (1992) Retinopathy in a population-based study. Trans Am Ophthalmol Soc 90: 561–594.
47. Klein R. Klein B.E. Moss S.E. Cruickshanks K.J. (1995) The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy XV: The long-term incidence of macular edema. Ophthalmology 102: 7–16.
48. Klein R. Klein B.E.K. Moss S.E. Davis M.D. DemMets D.L. (1984 a) The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. II. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is less than 30 years. Arch Ophthalmol 102: 520–526.
49. Klein R. Klein B.E.K. Moss S.E. Davis M.D. DemMets D.L. (1984 b) The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy. III. Prevalence and risk of diabetic retinopathy when age at diagnosis is 30 or more years. Arch Ophthalmol 102: 527–532.
50. Klein R. Knudtson M.D. Lee K.E. Gangnon R. Klein B.E. (2008) The Wisconsin Epidemiologic Study of Diabetic Retinopathy: XXII the twenty-five-year progression of retinopathy in persons with type 1 diabetes. Ophthalmology 115: 1859–1868.
51. Kumar A. Sinha S. Azad R. Sharma Y.R. Vohra R. (2007) Comparative evaluation of vitrectomy and dye-enhanced ILM peel with grid laser in diffuse diabetic macular edema. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 245: 360–368.
52. Kuppermann B.D. Blumenkranz M.S. Haller J.A. Williams G.A. Weinberg D.V. Chou C. et al (2007) Randomized controlled study of an intravitreous dexamethasone drug delivery system in patients with persistent macular edema. Dexamethasone DDS Phase II Study Group. Arch Ophthalmol 125: 309–317.
53. Kuppermann B.D. Thomas E.L. de Smet M.D. Grillone L.R. Vitrase for Vitreous Hemorrhage Study Groups. (2005 a) Pooled efficacy results from two multinational randomized controlled clinical trials of a single intravitreous injection of highly purified ovine hyaluronidase (Vitrase) for the management of vitreous hemorrhage. Am J Ophthalmol 140: 573–584.
54. Kuppermann B.D. Thomas E.L. de Smet M.D. Grillone L.R. Vitrase for Vitreous Hemorrhage Study Groups. (2005 b) Safety results of two phase III trials of an intravitreous injection of highly purified ovine hyaluronidase (Vitrase) for the management of vitreous hemorrhage. Am J Ophthalmol 140: 585–597.
55. Kuppermann, B.D., Welty, D., Robinson, M.R., Chang-Lin, J.E. and Whitcup, S.M. (2008) Vitreous and systemic pharmacokinetic profiles of intravitreally-administered dexamethasone posterior segment drug delivery system. Presented at: the 26th Annual Meeting of the American Society of Retina Specialists, Wailea, HI, 11–15 October 2008.
56. Mauer M. Zinman B. Gardiner R. Suissa S. Sinaiko A. Strand T. et al (2009) Renal and retinal effects of enalapril and losartan in type 1 diabetes. N Engl J Med 361: 40–51.
57. McCannel, C.A. (2010) Meta-analysis of endophthalmitis after intravitreal injection of anti-VEGF agents: Causative organisms and prevention strategies. Presented at American Academy of Ophthalmology, 17 October 2010.
58. Michaelides M. Kaines A. Hamilton R.D. Fraser-Bell S. Rajendram R. Quhill F. et al (2010) A prospective randomized trial of intravitreal bevacizumab or laser therapy in the management of diabetic macular edema (BOLT study) 12-month data: report 2. Ophthalmology 117: 1078–1086.
59. Nauck M. Karakiulakis G. Perruchoid A.P. Papkonstantinou E. Roth M. (1998) Corticosteroids inhibit the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor gene in human smooth muscle cells. Eur J Pharmacol 341: 309–315.
60. Nguyen Q.D. Shah S.M. Hafiz G. Quinlan E. Sung J. Cedarbaum J.M. et al CLEAR-AMD 1 Study Group. (2006) A phase I trial of an IV-administered vascular endothelial growth factor trap for treatment in patients with choroidal neovascularization due to age-related macular degeneration. Ophthalmology 113: 1522.e1–1522.e14.
61. Nguyen Q.D. Shah S.M. Heier J.S. Do D.V. Lim J. Boyer D. et al READ-2 Study Group. (2009) Primary end point (six months) results of the ranibizumab for edema of the m Acula in diabetes (READ-2) study. Ophthalmology 116: 2175–2181.
62. Nguyen Q.D. Shah S.M. Khwaja A.A. Channa R. Hatef E. Do D.V. et al READ-2 Study Group. (2010) Two-year outcomes of the ranibizumab for edema of the macula in diabetes (READ-2) study. Ophthalmology 18: September [Epub ahead of print].
63. Nicholson B.P. Schachat A.P. (2010) A review of clinical trials of anti-VEGF agents for diabetic retinopathy. Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol 248: 915–930.
64. Oshima Y. Shima C. Wakabayashi T. Kusaka S. Shiraga F. Ohji M. et al (2009) Microincision vitrectomy surgery and intravitreal bevacizumab as a surgical adjunct to treat diabetic traction retinal detachment. Ophthalmology 116: 927–938.
65. Ozaki H. Hayashi H. Vinores S.A. Moromizato Y. Campochiaro P.A. Oshima K. (1997) Intravitreal sustained release of VEGF causes retinal neovascularization in rabbits and breakdown of the blood-retinal barrier in rabbits and primates. Exp Eye Res 64: 505–517.
66. Pearson P. Levy B. Comstock T. (2006) Fluocinolone acetonide intravitreal implant to treat diabetic macular edema: 3–year results of a multi-center clinical trial. Fluocinolone Acetonide Implant Study Group. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 47: E-Abstract 5442.
67. Pelzek C. Lim J.I. (2002) Diabetic macular edema: review and update. Ophthalmol Clin North Am 15: 555–563.
68. PKC-DMES Study Group. (2007) Effect of ruboxistaurin in patients with diabetic macular edema: Thirty-month results of the randomized PKC-DMES clinical trial. Arch Ophthalmol 125: 318–324.
69. PKC-DRS2 Group. (2006) Effect of ruboxistaurin on visual loss in patients with diabetic retinopathy. Ophthalmology 113: 2221–2230.
70. Rein D.B. Zhang P. Wirth K.E. Lee P.P. Hoerger T.J. McCall N. et al (2006) The economic burden of major adult visual disorders in the United States. Arch Ophthalmol 124: 1754–1760.
71. Robinson G.S. Pierce E.A. Rook S.L. Foley E. Webb R. Smith L.E. (1996) Oligodeoxynucleotides inhibit retinal neovascularization in a murine model of proliferative retinopathy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93: 4851–4856.
72. Rosenfeld P.J. Brown D.M. Heier J.S. Boyer D.S. Kaiser P.K. Chung C.Y. et al MARINA Study Group. (2006) Ranibizumab for neovascular age-related macular degeneration. N Engl J Med 355: 1419–1431.
73. Saishin Y. Saishin Y. Takahashi K. Lima E. Silva R. Hylton D. et al (2003) VEGF-TRAP(R1R2) suppresses choroidal neovascularization and VEGF-induced breakdown of the blood–retinal barrier. J Cell Physiol 195: 241–248.
74. Schrier R.W. Estacio R.O. Esler A. Mehler P. (2002) Effects of aggressive blood pressure control in normotensive type 2 diabetic patients on albuminuria, retinopathy and strokes. Kidney Int 61: 1086–1097.
75. Sen K. Misra A. Kumar A. Pandey R.M. (2002) Simvastatin retards progression of retinopathy in diabetic patients with hypercholesterolemia. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 56: 1–11.
76. Shah, C.P. (2010) Risk factors and outcomes of endophthalmitis after intravitreal injection of anti-VEGF agents. Presented at American Society of Retina Specialists, 1 September 2010.
77. Shinoda K. Ishida S. Kawashima S. Wakabayashi T. Uchita M. Matsuzaki T. et al (2000) Clinical factors related to the aqueous levels of vascular endothelial growth factor and hepatocyte growth factor in proliferative diabetic retinopathy. Curr Eye Res 21: 655–661.
78. Smiddy W.E. Flynn H.W. (1999) Vitrectomy in the management of diabetic retinopathy. Surv Ophthalmol 43: 491–507.
79. Stolba U. Binder S. Gruber D. Krebs I. Aggermann T. Neumaier B. (2005) Vitrectomy for persistent diffuse diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 140: 295–301.
80. Ticlopidine Microangiopathy of Diabetes (TIMAD) Study Group. (1990) Ticlopidine treatment reduces the progression of nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy. Arch Ophthalmol 108: 1577–1583.
81. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. (1998 a) Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes, report no. 33. Lancet 352: 837–853.
82. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. (1998 b) Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes, report no. 38. Br Med J 317: 703–713.
83. US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) MedWatch (2005). Safety: Avastin (bevacizumab). Available at: http://www.fda.gov.ezproxy.library.tufts.edu/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm150721.htm (accessed October 2010).
84. White N.H. Sun W. Cleary P.A. Danis R.P. Davis M.D. Hainsworth D.P. et al (2008) Prolonged effect of intensive therapy on the risk of retinopathy complications in patients with type 1 diabetes mellitus: 10 years after the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial. Arch Ophthalmol 126: 1707–1715.
85. Williams G.A. Haller J.A. Kuppermann B.D. Blumenkranz M.S. Weinberg D.V. Chou C. et al Dexamethasone DDS Phase II Study Group. (2009) Dexamethasone posterior-segment drug delivery system in the treatment of macular edema resulting from uveitis or Irvine-Gass syndrome. Am J Ophthalmol 147: 1048–1054.
86. Wong T.Y. Mwamburi M. Klein R. Larsen M. Flynn H. Hernandez-Medina M. et al (2009) Rates of progression in diabetic retinopathy during different time periods: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 32: 2307–2313.
87. Xia P. Aiello L.P. Ishii H. Jiang Z.Y. Park D.J. Robinson G.S. et al (1996) Characterization of vascular endothelial growth factor's effect on the activation of protein kinase C, its isoforms, and endothelial cell growth. J Clin Invest 98: 2018–2026.
88. Yanyali A. Nohutcu A.F. Horozoglu F. Celik E. (2005) Modified grid laser photocoagulation versus pars plana vitrectomy with internal limiting membrane removal in diabetic macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 139: 795–801.