Autonomic function as a missing piece of the classification of Paralympic athletes with spinal cord injury

Spinal Cord

Volumn 49, Issue 7, 2011, Pages 768-776

  Mills, P B ^a   Krassioukov, A ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b GF STRONG REHABILITATION CENTRE   (Canada)

Author keywords

autonomic dysreflexia; boosting; cardiovascular; performance; spinal cord injury

Indexed keywords

ATHLETE; ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; AUTONOMIC DYSREFLEXIA; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; AUTONOMIC NEUROPATHY; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; CLASSIFICATION; DATA BASE; DIASTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE; EXERCISE; HEART RATE; HUMAN; INTERNET; MOTOR CONTROL; ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT; PHYSICAL PERFORMANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SPINAL CORD INJURY; SPORT; SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE;

ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE; AUTONOMIC DYSREFLEXIA; EXERCISE TOLERANCE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; SPINAL CORD INJURIES; SPORTS;

EID: 79959911336     PISSN: 13624393     EISSN: 14765624     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1038/sc.2011.2     Document Type: Review

References (65)

1. International Paralympic Committee. IPC classification code and international standards, Available at: Http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/ default/IPC/IPC-Handbook/Section-2/2008-2-Classification-Code6.pdf (accessed January 3, 2010)
2. International Paralympic Committee. Position statement on background and scientific rationale for classification in paralympic sport. Chapter 4.4 IPC Handbook. International Paralympic Committee, Bonn, Germany, Available at: Http://www.paralympicorg/export/sites/default/IPC/IPC-Handbook/Section-2/ Sec-ii-chapter-4.4-Position-Statement-on-Classification.pdf (accessed January 3, 2010)
3. Claus-Walker J, Halstead LS. Metabolic and endocrine changes in spinal cord injury: II (section 1). Consequences of partial decentralization of the autonomic nervous system. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1982; 63: 569-575 (Pubitemid 13255036)
4. Figoni SF. Exercise responses and quadriplegia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 433-441 (Pubitemid 23108206)
5. Garstang SV, Miller-Smith SA. Autonomic nervous system dysfunction after spinal cord injury. Phys Med Rehabil Clin N Am 2007; 18: 275-296 (Pubitemid 46818027)
6. Gondim FA, Lopes Jr AC, Oliveira GR, Rodrigues CL, Leal PR, Santos AA et al. Cardiovascular control after spinal cord injury Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2004; 2: 71-79 (Pubitemid 38855016)
7. Burnham R, Wheeler G, Bhanbhani Y, Belanger M, Eriksson P, Steadward R. Intentional induction of autonomic dysreflexia among quadriplegic athletes for performance enhancement: Efficacy, safety, and mechanism of action. Clin J Sport Med 1994; 4: 1-10 (Pubitemid 24009026)
8. Webborn AD. 'Boosting' performance in disability sport Br J Sports Med 1999; 33: 74-75
9. Schmid A, Schmidt-Trucksass A, Huonker M, König D, Eisenbarth I, Sauerwein H et al. Catecholamines response of high performance wheelchair athletes at rest and during exercise with autonomic dysreflexia. Int J Sports Med 2001; 22: 2-7 (Pubitemid 32147436)
10. Wheeler G, Cumming D, Burnham R, Maclean I, Sloley BD, Bhambhani Y et al. Testosterone, cortisol and catecholamine responses to exercise stress and autonomic dysreflexia in elite quadriplegic athletes. Paraplegia 1994; 32: 292-299 (Pubitemid 24145534)
11. Karlsson AK. Autonomic dysreflexia. Spinal Cord 1999; 37: 383-391 (Pubitemid 29317464)
12. Kewalramani LS. Autonomic dysreflexia in traumatic myelopathy. Am J Phys Med 1980; 59: 1-21 (Pubitemid 10176807)
13. Krassioukov A, Claydon VE. The clinical problems in cardiovascular control following spinal cord injury: An overview Prog Brain Res 2006; 152: 223-229
14. Eltorai I, Kim R, Vulpe M, Kasravi H, Ho W. Fatal cerebral hemorrhage due to autonomic dysreflexia in a tetraplegic patient: Case report and review. Paraplegia 1992; 30: 355-360
15. Yarkony GM, Katz RT, Wu Y. Seizures secondary to autonomic dysreflexia. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1986; 67: 834-835 (Pubitemid 17186217)
16. Ho CP, Krassioukov AV. Autonomic dysreflexia and myocardial ischemia. Spinal Cord 2010; 48: 714-715
17. Pine ZM, Miller SD, Alonso JA. Atrial fibrillation associated with autonomic dysreflexia. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1991; 70: 271-273
18. Valles M, Benito J, Portell E, Vidal J. Cerebral hemorrhage due to autonomic dysreflexia in a spinal cord injury patient Spinal Cord 2005; 43: 738-740 (Pubitemid 41759829)
19. International Paralympic Committee. Position statement on autonomic dysreflexia and boosting. Chapter 4.3 IPC Handbook International Paralympic Committee, Bonn, Germany, Available at: Http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/ default/IPC/IPC-Handbook/Section-2/Sec-ii-chapter-4.3-Position-Statement-on- Autonomic-Dysreflexia-and-Boosting.pdf (accessed January 3, 2010)
20. Bhambhani Y, Mactavish J, Warren S, Thompson W, Webborn A, Bressan E et al. Boosting in athletes with high level spinal cord injury: Incidence, knowledge and attitudes of athletes in paralympic sport. Available at: Http://www.wada-ama.org/rtecontent/document/Bhambhani-final-report-2009.PDF (accessed March 10, 2010)
21. Bravo G, Guizar-Sahagun G, Ibarra A, Centurion D, Villalon CM Cardiovascular alterations after spinal cord injury: An overview Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents 2004; 2: 133-148 (Pubitemid 38854975)
22. Krassioukov A. Which pathways must be spared in the injured human spinal cord to retain cardiovascular control? Prog Brain Res 2006; 152: 39-47 (Pubitemid 41392854)
23. Marino RJ, Barros T, Biering-Sorensen F, Burns SP, Donovan WH, Graves DE et al. International standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 2003; 26: S50-S56
24. Curt A, Nitsche B, Rodic B, Schurch B, Dietz V. Assessment of autonomic dysreflexia in patients with spinal cord injury J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1997; 62: 473-477 (Pubitemid 27237055)
25. Curt A, Weinhardt C, Dietz V. Significance of sympathetic skin response in the assessment of autonomic failure in patients with spinal cord injury. J Auton Nerv Syst 1996; 61: 175-180 (Pubitemid 26384342)
26. Claydon VE, Krassioukov AV. Orthostatic hypotension and autonomic pathways after spinal cord injury. J Neurotrauma 2006; 23: 1713-1725 (Pubitemid 46034446)
27. Alexander MS, Biering-Sorensen F, Bodner D, Brackett NL, Cardenas D, Charlifue S et al. International standards to document remaining autonomic function after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2009; 47: 36-43
28. Curt A, Weinhardt C, Dietz V. Significance of sympathetic skin response in the assessment of autonomic failure in patients with spinal cord injury. J Auton Nerv Syst 1996; 61: 175-180 (Pubitemid 26384342)
29. Teasell RW, Arnold JM, Krassioukov A, Delaney GA. Cardiovascular consequences of loss of supraspinal control of the sympathetic nervous system after spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000; 81: 506-516 (Pubitemid 30192047)
30. Krassioukov AV, Johns DG, Schramm LP. Sensitivity of sympathetically correlated spinal interneurons, renal sympathetic nerve activity, and arterial pressure to somatic and visceral stimuli after chronic spinal injury. J Neurotrauma 2002; 19: 1521-1529 (Pubitemid 36026209)
31. Krassioukov AV, Bunge RP, Pucket WR, Bygrave MA. The changes in human spinal sympathetic preganglionic neurons after spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 1999; 37: 6-13 (Pubitemid 29140127)
32. Krassioukov AV, Weaver LC. Reflex and morphological changes in spinal preganglionic neurons after cord injury in rats. Clin Exp Hypertens (New York) 1995; 17: 361-373
33. International Wheelchair Basketball Federation Player Classification Commission. A Guide to the IWBF Functional Classification System for Wheelchair Basketball Players, Available at: Http:// www.aqsfr.qc.ca/sport/basket/ ClassificationManual-2004-final pdf. (accessed January 10, 2010)
34. Sutlive VH, Neujahr E, Royse R, Stanich M. Intrinsic dynamics of persons with spinal cord injury autonomic nervous system constraints. Clin Kinesiol 1999; 53: 4-10 (Pubitemid 29195272)
35. Warburton DE, Glendhill N, Quinney A. The effects of changes in musculoskeletal fitness on health. Can J Appl Physiol 2001; 26: 161-216 (Pubitemid 33602742)
36. Dela F, Mohr T, Jensen CM, Haahr HL, Secher NH, Biering-Sorensen F et al. Cardiovascular control during exercise: Insights from spinal cord-injured humans. Circulation 2003; 107: 2127-2133 (Pubitemid 36532195)
37. Krassioukov AV, Karlsson A,Wecht JM,Wuermser LA, Mathias CJ, Marino RJ. Assessment of autonomic dysfunction following spinal cord injury: Rationale for additions to international standards for neurological assessment. J Rehabil Res Dev 2007; 44: 103-112 (Pubitemid 46890064)
38. DiPette D, Gavras I, North W. Vasopressin response to hyperosmotic stimulus: Blood pressure effect in normal subjects and patients with impaired sympathetic system. Clin Exp HypertensF Part A Theory Pract 1984; 6: 851-861 (Pubitemid 14134549)
39. Hopman MT, Groothuis JT, Flendrie M, Gerrits KH, Houtman S Increased vascular resistance in paralyzed legs after spinal cord injury is reversible by training. J Appl Physiol 2002; 93: 1966-1972 (Pubitemid 35379321)
40. Claydon VE, Hol AT, Eng JJ, Krassioukov AV. Cardiovascular responses and postexercise hypotension after arm cycling exercise in subjects with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2006; 87: 1106-1114 (Pubitemid 44107855)
41. Dixon EM, Kamath MV, McCartney N, Fallen EL Neural regulation of heart rate variability in endurance athletes and sedentary controls. Cardiovasc Res 1992; 26: 713-719
42. Yamamoto K, Miyachi M, Saitoh T, Yoshioka A, Onodera S Effects of endurance training on resting and post-exercise cardiac autonomic control. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1496-1502 (Pubitemid 32831439)
43. Wecht JM, De Meersman RE, Weir JP, Spungen AM, Bauman WA, Grimm DR. The effects of autonomic dysfunction and endurance training on cardiovascular control. Clin Auton Res 2001; 11: 29-34 (Pubitemid 33027787)
44. Otsuka Y, Shima N, Moritani T, Okuda K, Yabe K. Orthostatic influence on heart rate and blood pressure variability in trained persons with tetraplegia. Eur J Appl Physiol 2008; 104: 75-78
45. Wecht JM, Marsico R, Weir JP, Spungen AM, Bauman WA, De Meersman RE. Autonomic recovery from peak arm exercise in fit and unfit individuals with paraplegia. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006; 38: 1223-1228 (Pubitemid 44036692)
46. Schmid A, Huonker M, Stober P, Barturen JM, Schmidt-Trucksäss A, Dürr H et al. Physical performance and cardiovascular and metabolic adaptation of elite female wheelchair basketball players in wheelchair ergometry and in competition. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1998; 77: 527-533 (Pubitemid 29001997)
47. Asayama K, Nakamura Y, Ogata H, Hatada K, Okuma H, Deguchi Y. Physical fitness of paraplegics in full wheelchair marathon racing. Paraplegia 1985; 23: 277-287 (Pubitemid 16240355)
48. Hopman MT, Oeseburg B, Binkhorst RA. Cardiovascular responses in persons with paraplegia to prolonged arm exercise and thermal stress. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 577-583 (Pubitemid 23138075)
49. Rimaud D, Calmels P, Roche F, Mongold JJ, Trudeau F, Devillard X. Effects of graduated compression stockings on cardiovascular and metabolic responses to exercise and exercise recovery in persons with spinal cord injury. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2007; 88: 703-709 (Pubitemid 46813122)
50. Campbell IG, Williams C, Lakomy HK. Physiological and metabolic responses of wheelchair athletes in different racing classes to prolonged exercise. J Sports Sci 2004; 22: 449-456 (Pubitemid 38584931)
51. Barfield JP, Malone LA, Collins JM, Ruble SB. Disability type influences heart rate response during power wheelchair sport Med Sci Sports Exerc 2005; 37: 718-723
52. Schumacher YO, Ruthardt S, Schmidt M, Ahlgrim C, Roecker K, Pottgiesser T. Total haemoglobin mass but not cardiac volume adapts to long-term endurance exercise in highly trained spinal cord injured athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2009; 105: 779-785
53. Kessler KM, Pina I, Green B, Burnett B, Laighold M, Bilsker Met al Cardiovascular findings in quadriplegic and paraplegic patients and in normal subjects. Am J Cardiol 1986; 58: 525-530 (Pubitemid 16052685)
54. Nash MS, Bilsker S, Marcillo AE, Isaac SM, Botelho LA, Klose KJ et al. Reversal of adaptive left ventricular atrophy following electrically-stimulated exercise training in human tetraplegics Paraplegia 1991; 29: 590-599
55. Dawson B, Bridle J, Lockwood RJ. Thermoregulation of paraplegic and able bodied men during prolonged exercise in hot and cool climates. Paraplegia 1994; 32: 860-870
56. Schmid A, Huonker M, Barturen JM, Stahl F, Schmidt-Trucksäss A, König D et al. Catecholamines, heart rate, and oxygen uptake during exercise in persons with spinal cord injury. J Appl Physiol 1998; 85: 635-641 (Pubitemid 28365833)
57. Hopman MT, Pistorius M, Kamerbeek IC, Binkhorst RA Cardiac output in paraplegic subjects at high exercise intensities Eur J Appl Physiol 1993; 66: 531-535 (Pubitemid 23238838)
58. Hopman MT, Kamerbeek IC, PistoriusM, Binkhorst RA. The effect of an anti-G suit on the maximal performance of individuals with paraplegia. Int J Sports Med 1993; 14: 357-361 (Pubitemid 23289540)
59. Hopman MT, Oeseburg B, Binkhorst RA. Cardiovascular responses in paraplegic subjects during arm exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 1992; 65: 73-78
60. Goosey-Tolfrey V, Castle P, Webborn N, Abel T. Aerobic capacity and peak power output of elite quadriplegic games players Br J Sports Med 2006; 40: 684-687 (Pubitemid 44197139)
61. Krassioukov A. Autonomic function following cervical spinal cord injury. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2009; 169: 157-164
62. Garshick E, Kelley A, Cohen SA, Garrison A, Tun CG, Gagnon D et al. A prospective assessment of mortality in chronic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2005; 43: 408-416 (Pubitemid 41039541)
63. Calder KB, Estores IM, Krassioukov A. Autonomic dysreflexia and associated acute neurogenic pulmonary edema in a patient with spinal cord injury: A case report and review of the literature Spinal Cord 2009; 47: 423-425
64. Legg D, Mason DS. Autonomic dysreflexia in wheelchair sport: A new game in the legal arena? Marq Sports L J 1997; 8: 225-262
65. International Paralympic Committee. IPC Anti-Doping Code, Available at: Http://www.paralympic.org/export/sites/default/IPC/IPC-Handbook/Section-2/ 2009-11-IPC-Anti-Doping-Code pdf (accessed January 3, 2010)