Non-injection drug use and HIV disease progression in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy

Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment

Volumn 40, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 386-396

  Kipp, Aaron M ^a,b   Desruisseau, Andrew J ^a   Qian, Han Zhu ^a,b  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Antiretroviral therapy; Disease progression; HIV; Noninjection drug use

Indexed keywords

AMPHETAMINE; ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; BUPRENORPHINE; CANNABIS; COCAINE; DIAMORPHINE; EFAVIRENZ; ILLICIT DRUG; METHADONE; NELFINAVIR; NONNUCLEOSIDE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITOR; OPIATE; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RITONAVIR;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ARTICLE; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; COHORT ANALYSIS; COMBINATION ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE COURSE; DRUG ABUSE; DRUG BLOOD LEVEL; DRUG DEPENDENCE TREATMENT; DRUG METABOLISM; HAZARD RATIO; HEALTH STATUS; HEPATITIS; HEROIN DEPENDENCE; HIGHLY ACTIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPY; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNOMODULATION; INFECTION RISK; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MALNUTRITION; METHADONE TREATMENT; MORTALITY; MULTIPLE DRUG ABUSE; NON INJECTION DRUG USE; OPIATE ADDICTION; PATIENT COMPLIANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASE; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TUBERCULOSIS; VIRUS LOAD;

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; DRUG THERAPY, COMBINATION; HUMANS; SUBSTANCE-RELATED DISORDERS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 79955106028     PISSN: 07405472     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jsat.2011.01.001     Document Type: Article

References (91)

1. Altice F.L., Kamarulzaman A., Soriano V.V., Schechter M., Friedland G.H. Treatment of medical, psychiatric, and substance-use comorbidities in people infected with HIV who use drugs. Lancet 2010, 376:367-387.
2. Anastos K., Schneider M.F., Gange S.J., Minkoff H., Greenblatt R.M., Feldman J., et al. The association of race, sociodemographic, and behavioral characteristics with response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in women. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2005, 39:537-544.
3. Importance of baseline prognostic factors with increasing time since initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy: Collaborative analysis of cohorts of HIV-1-infected patients. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2007, 46:607-615. Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration.
4. Antoniou T., Tseng A.L. Interactions between recreational drugs and antiretroviral agents. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 2002, 36:1598-1613.
5. Astemborski J., Vlahov D., Warren D., Solomon L., Nelson K.E. The trading of sex for drugs or money and HIV seropositivity among female intravenous drug users. American Journal of Public Health 1994, 84:382-387.
6. Azar M.M., Springer S.A., Meyer J.P., Altice F.L. A systematic review of the impact of alcohol use disorders on HIV treatment outcomes, adherence to antiretroviral therapy and health care utilization. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2010, (in print).
7. Baker J., Rainey P.M., Moody D.E., Morse G.D., Ma Q., McCance-Katz E.F. Interactions between buprenorphine and antiretrovirals: Nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) didanosine, lamivudine, and tenofovir. The American Journal on Addictions/American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions 2010, 19:17-29.
8. Bing E.G., Burnam M.A., Longshore D., Fleishman J.A., Sherbourne C.D., London A.S., et al. Psychiatric disorders and drug use among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adults in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry 2001, 58:721-728.
9. Brewer T.H., Zhao W., Metsch L.R., Coltes A., Zenilman J. High-risk behaviors in women who use crack: Knowledge of HIV serostatus and risk behavior. Annals of Epidemiology 2007, 17:533-539.
10. Cabral G.A. Drugs of abuse, immune modulation, and AIDS. Journal of Neuroimmune Pharmacology: The Official Journal of the Society on Neuroimmune Pharmacology 2006, 1:280-295.
11. Celentano D.D., Lucas G. Optimizing treatment outcomes in HIV-infected patients with substance abuse issues. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007, 45(Suppl 4):S318-S323.
12. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 1993 revised classification system for HIV infection and expanded surveillance case definition for AIDS among adolescents and adults. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 1992, 41.
13. Chander G., Himelhoch S., Moore R.D. Substance abuse and psychiatric disorders in HIV-positive patients: Epidemiology and impact on antiretroviral therapy. Drugs 2006, 66:769-789.
14. Clarke S.M., Mulcahy F.M., Tjia J., Reynolds H.E., Gibbons S.E., Barry M.G., et al. The pharmacokinetics of methadone in HIV-positive patients receiving the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor efavirenz. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2001, 51:213-217.
15. Cofrancesco J., Scherzer R., Tien P.C., Gibert C.L., Southwell H., Sidney S., et al. Illicit drug use and HIV treatment outcomes in a US cohort. AIDS 2008, 22:357-365.
16. Cohen M.H., French A.L., Benning L., Kovacs A., Anastos K., Young M., et al. Causes of death among women with human immunodeficiency virus infection in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. The American Journal of Medicine 2002, 113:91-98.
17. Cole S.R., Hernan M.A. Fallibility in estimating direct effects. International Journal of Epidemiology 2002, 31:163-165.
18. Cook J.A., Burke-Miller J.K., Cohen M.H., Cook R.L., Vlahov D., Wilson T.E., et al. Crack cocaine, disease progression, and mortality in a multicenter cohort of HIV-1 positive women. AIDS 2008, 22:1355-1363.
19. Cook J.A., Grey D., Burke J., Cohen M.H., Gurtman A.C., Richardson J.L., et al. Depressive symptoms and AIDS-related mortality among a multisite cohort of HIV-positive women. American Journal of Public Health 2004, 94:1133-1140.
20. de Souza C.T., Diaz T., Sutmoller F., Bastos F.I. The association of socioeconomic status and use of crack/cocaine with unprotected anal sex in a cohort of men who have sex with men in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2002, 29:95-100.
21. Dorrucci M., Pezzotti P., Phillips A.N., Alliegro M.B., Rezza G. Antiretroviral treatment and progression to AIDS in HIV seroconverters from different risk groups. HIV Italian Seroconversion Study. AIDS 1997, 11:461-467.
22. Edlin B.R., Irwin K.L., Faruque S., McCoy C.B., Word C., Serrano Y., et al. Intersecting epidemics-crack cocaine use and HIV infection among inner-city young adults. Multicenter Crack Cocaine and HIV Infection Study Team. The New England Journal of Medicine 1994, 331:1422-1427.
23. Egger M., May M., Chene G., Phillips A.N., Ledergerber B., Dabis F., et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients starting highly active antiretroviral therapy: A collaborative analysis of prospective studies. Lancet 2002, 360:119-129.
24. Eskild A., Magnus P., Brekke T., Bruun J.N., Heger B., Froland S.S., et al. The impact of exposure group on the progression rate to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. A comparison between intravenous drug users, homosexual men and heterosexually infected subjects. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 1997, 29:103-109.
25. Friedman H., Newton C., Klein T.W. Microbial infections, immunomodulation, and drugs of abuse. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 2003, 16:209-219.
26. Friedman H., Pross S., Klein T.W. Addictive drugs and their relationship with infectious diseases. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology 2006, 47:330-342.
27. Girardi E., Sabin C.A., d'Arminio Monforte A., Hogg B., Phillips A.N., Gill M.J., et al. Incidence of tuberculosis among HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy in Europe and North America. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2005, 41:1772-1782.
28. Greub G., Ledergerber B., Battegay M., Grob P., Perrin L., Furrer H., et al. Clinical progression, survival, and immune recovery during antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-1 and hepatitis C virus coinfection: The Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Lancet 2000, 356:1800-1805.
29. Gruber V.A., McCance-Katz E.F. Methadone, buprenorphine, and street drug interactions with antiretroviral medications. Current HIV/AIDS Reports 2010, 7:152-160.
30. Hariparsad N., Nallani S.C., Sane R.S., Buckley D.J., Buckley A.R., Desai P.B. Induction of CYP3A4 by efavirenz in primary human hepatocytes: Comparison with rifampin and phenobarbital. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology 2004, 44:1273-1281.
31. Harrington R.D., Woodward J.A., Hooton T.M., Horn J.R. Life-threatening interactions between HIV-1 protease inhibitors and the illicit drugs MDMA and gamma-hydroxybutyrate. Archives of Internal Medicine 1999, 159:2221-2224.
32. Hendricks K.M., Erzen H.D., Wanke C.A., Tang A.M. Nutrition issues in the HIV-infected injection drug user: Findings from the nutrition for healthy living cohort. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2010, 29:136-143.
33. Hermans S.M., Kiragga A.N., Schaefer P., Kambugu A., Hoepelman A.I., Manabe Y.C. Incident tuberculosis during antiretroviral therapy contributes to suboptimal immune reconstitution in a large urban HIV clinic in sub-Saharan Africa. PLoS One 2010, 5:e10527.
34. Hershow R.C., O'Driscoll P.T., Handelsman E., Pitt J., Hillyer G., Serchuck L., et al. Hepatitis C virus coinfection and HIV load, CD4+ cell percentage, and clinical progression to AIDS or death among HIV-infected women: Women and Infants Transmission Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2005, 40:859-867.
35. Hessol N.A., Kalinowski A., Benning L., Mullen J., Young M., Palella F., et al. Mortality among participants in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study and the Women's Interagency HIV Study. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2007, 44:287-294.
36. Hinkin C.H., Barclay T.R., Castellon S.A., Levine A.J., Durvasula R.S., Marion S.D., et al. Drug use and medication adherence among HIV-1 infected individuals. AIDS and Behavior 2007, 11:185-194.
37. Howard A.A., Arnsten J.H., Lo Y., Vlahov D., Rich J.D., Schuman P., et al. A prospective study of adherence and viral load in a large multi-center cohort of HIV-infected women. AIDS 2002, 16:2175-2182.
38. Ickovics J.R., Hamburger M.E., Vlahov D., Schoenbaum E.E., Schuman P., Boland R.J., et al. Mortality, CD4 cell count decline, and depressive symptoms among HIV-seropositive women: Longitudinal analysis from the HIV Epidemiology Research Study. JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association 2001, 285:1466-1474.
39. Iribarne C., Berthou F., Carlhant D., Dreano Y., Picart D., Lohezic F., et al. Inhibition of methadone and buprenorphine N-dealkylations by three HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Drug Metabolism and Disposition: the Biological Fate of Chemicals 1998, 26:257-260.
40. Kakuda T.N., Scholler-Gyure M., Hoetelmans R.M. Clinical perspective on antiretroviral drug-drug interactions with the non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor etravirine. Antiviral Therapy 2010, 15:817-829.
41. Kapadia F., Cook J.A., Cohen M.H., Sohler N., Kovacs A., Greenblatt R.M., et al. The relationship between non-injection drug use behaviors on progression to AIDS and death in a cohort of HIV seropositive women in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy use. Addiction 2005, 100:990-1002.
42. Kaufman J.S., Maclehose R.F., Kaufman S. A further critique of the analytic strategy of adjusting for covariates to identify biologic mediation. Epidemiologic Perspectives Innovations 2004, 1:4.
43. Khalsa J.H., Elkashef A. Drug interactions between antiretroviral medications and medications used in the treatment of drug addiction: Research needs. The American journal on addictions/American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions 2010, 19:96-100.
44. Krol A., Flynn C., Vlahov D., Miedema F., Coutinho R.A., van Ameijden E.J. New evidence to reconcile in vitro and epidemiologic data on the possible role of heroin on CD4+ decline among HIV-infected injecting drug users. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 1999, 54:145-154.
45. Kuyper L.M., Collins C.L., Kerr T., Hogg R.S., Li K., Tyndall M.W., et al. The prevalence and incidence of sexually transmitted infections in a prospective cohort of injection drug users in Vancouver, British Columbia. The Canadian Journal of Infectious Disease and Medica Microbiology 2005, 16:225-229.
46. Lakhman S.S., Ma Q., Morse G.D. Pharmacogenomics of CYP3A: Considerations for HIV treatment. Pharmacogenomics 2009, 10:1323-1339.
47. Lelutiu-Weinberger C., Pouget E.R., Des Jarlais D.D., Cooper H.L., Scheinmann R., Stern R., et al. A meta-analysis of the hepatitis C virus distribution in diverse racial/ethnic drug injector groups. Social Science & Medicine 2009, 68:579-590.
48. Lin L.Y., Di Stefano E.W., Schmitz D.A., Hsu L., Ellis S.W., Lennard M.S., et al. Oxidation of methamphetamine and methylenedioxymethamphetamine by CYP2D6. Drug Metabolism and Disposition: the Biological Fate of Chemicals 1997, 25:1059-1064.
49. Lin L.Y., Kumagai Y., Hiratsuka A., Narimatsu S., Suzuki T., Funae Y., et al. Cytochrome P4502D isozymes catalyze the 4-hydroxylation of methamphetamine enantiomers. Drug Metabolism and Disposition: the Biological Fate of Chemicals 1995, 23:610-614.
50. Lucas G.M., Griswold M., Gebo K.A., Keruly J., Chaisson R.E., Moore R.D. Illicit drug use and HIV-1 disease progression: A longitudinal study in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. American Journal of Epidemiology 2006, 163:412-420.
51. Ma Q., Okusanya O.O., Smith P.F., Dicenzo R., Slish J.C., Catanzaro L.M., et al. Pharmacokinetic drug interactions with non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors. Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology 2005, 1:473-485.
52. Mathers B.M., Degenhardt L., Phillips B., Wiessing L., Hickman M., Strathdee S.A., et al. Global epidemiology of injecting drug use and HIV among people who inject drugs: A systematic review. Lancet 2008, 372:1733-1745.
53. May M., Sterne J.A., Sabin C., Costagliola D., Justice A.C., Thiebaut R., et al. Prognosis of HIV-1-infected patients up to 5 years after initiation of HAART: Collaborative analysis of prospective studies. AIDS 2007, 21:1185-1197.
54. McCance-Katz E.F., Moody D.E., Morse G.D., Friedland G., Pade P., Baker J., et al. Interactions between buprenorphine and antiretrovirals. I. The nonnucleoside reverse-transcriptase inhibitors efavirenz and delavirdine. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2006, 43(Suppl 4):S224-S234.
55. McCance-Katz E.F., Moody D.E., Morse G.D., Ma Q., DiFrancesco R., Friedland G., et al. Interaction between buprenorphine and atazanavir or atazanavir/ritonavir. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2007, 91:269-278.
56. McCance-Katz E.F., Rainey P.M., Jatlow P., Friedland G. Methadone effects on zidovudine disposition (AIDS Clinical Trials Group 262). Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1998, 18:435-443.
57. McCance-Katz E.F., Rainey P.M., Smith P., Morse G.D., Friedland G., Boyarsky B., et al. Drug interactions between opioids and antiretroviral medications: Interaction between methadone, LAAM, and delavirdine. The American journal on addictions/American Academy of Psychiatrists in Alcoholism and Addictions 2006, 15:23-34.
58. Mills E.J., Nachega J.B., Bangsberg D.R., Singh S., Rachlis B., Wu P., et al. Adherence to HAART: A systematic review of developed and developing nation patient-reported barriers and facilitators. PLoS Medicine 2006, 3:e438.
59. Mitchell M.M., Latimer W.W. Unprotected casual sex and perceived risk of contracting HIV among drug users in Baltimore, Maryland: Evaluating the influence of non-injection versus injection drug user status. AIDS Care 2009, 21:221-230.
60. Modjarrad K., Vermund S.H. Effect of treating co-infections on HIV-1 viral load: A systematic review. The Lancet Infectious Diseases 2010, 10:455-463.
61. Nicastri E., Angeletti C., Palmisano L., Sarmati L., Chiesi A., Geraci A., et al. Gender differences in clinical progression of HIV-1-infected individuals during long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2005, 19:577-583.
62. Pasanen M., Pellinen P., Stenback F., Juvonen R.O., Raunio H., Pelkonen O. The role of CYP enzymes in cocaine-induced liver damage. Archives of Toxicology 1995, 69:287-290.
63. Pehrson P., Lindback S., Lidman C., Gaines H., Giesecke J. Longer survival after HIV infection for injecting drug users than for homosexual men: Implications for immunology. AIDS 1997, 11:1007-1012.
64. Pence B.W., Miller W.C., Gaynes B.N., Eron J.J. Psychiatric illness and virologic response in patients initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2007, 44:159-166.
65. Perez-Hoyos S., Ferreros I., del Amo J., Muga R., del Romero J., de Olalla P.G., et al. Survival and progression to AIDS in a seroconverter cohort in the post-highly active antiretroviral therapy era: Effectiveness goes on. AIDS 2006, 20:289-291.
66. Pezzotti P., Galai N., Vlahov D., Rezza G., Lyles C.M., Astemborski J. Direct comparison of time to AIDS and infectious disease death between HIV seroconverter injection drug users in Italy and the United States: Results from the ALIVE and ISS studies. AIDS Link to Intravenous Experiences. Italian Seroconversion Study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 1999, 20:275-282.
67. Pezzotti P., Phillips A.N., Dorrucci M., Lepri A.C., Galai N., Vlahov D., et al. Category of exposure to HIV and age in the progression to AIDS: Longitudinal study of 1199 people with known dates of seroconversion. HIV Italian Seroconversion Study Group. BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) 1996, 313:583-586.
68. Prestage G., Fogarty A.S., Rawstorne P., Grierson J., Zablotska I., Grulich A., et al. Use of illicit drugs among gay men living with HIV in Sydney. AIDS 2007, 21(Suppl 1):S49-S55.
69. Purcell D.W., Moss S., Remien R.H., Woods W.J., Parsons J.T. Illicit substance use, sexual risk, and HIV-positive gay and bisexual men: Differences by serostatus of casual partners. AIDS 2005, 19(Suppl 1):S37-S47.
70. Quach L.A., Wanke C.A., Schmid C.H., Gorbach S.L., Mwamburi D.M., Mayer K.H., et al. Drug use and other risk factors related to lower body mass index among HIV-infected individuals. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2008, 95:30-36.
71. Rainey P.M., Friedland G., McCance-Katz E.F., Andrews L., Mitchell S.M., Charles C., et al. Interaction of methadone with didanosine and stavudine. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2000, 24:241-248.
72. Ramirez-Valles J., Garcia D., Campbell R.T., Diaz R.M., Heckathorn D.D. HIV infection, sexual risk behavior, and substance use among Latino gay and bisexual men and transgender persons. American Journal of Public Health 2008, 98:1036-1042.
73. Rodriguez-Arenas M.A., Jarrin I., del Amo J., Iribarren J.A., Moreno S., Viciana P., et al. Delay in the initiation of HAART, poorer virological response, and higher mortality among HIV-infected injecting drug users in Spain. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses 2006, 22:715-723.
74. Rothman K.J., Greenland S., Lash T.L. Validity in epidemiologic studies. Modern epidemiology 2008, Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia. 3rd ed. K.J. Rothman, S. Greenland, T.L. Lash (Eds.).
75. Seden K., Back D., Khoo S. Antiretroviral drug interactions: Often unrecognized, frequently unavoidable, sometimes unmanageable. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 2009, 64:5-8.
76. Slish J., Ma Q., Zingman B.S., Reichman R.C., Fischl M.A., Gripshover B., et al. Assessing the impact of substance use and hepatitis coinfection on atazanavir and lopinavir trough concentrations in HIV-infected patients during therapeutic drug monitoring. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 2007, 29:560-565.
77. Smit C., van den Berg C., Geskus R., Berkhout B., Coutinho R., Prins M. Risk of hepatitis-related mortality increased among hepatitis C virus/HIV-coinfected drug users compared with drug users infected only with hepatitis C virus: A 20-year prospective study. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2008, 47:221-225.
78. Sohler N.L., Wong M.D., Cunningham W.E., Cabral H., Drainoni M.L., Cunningham C.O. Type and pattern of illicit drug use and access to health care services for HIV-infected people. AIDS Patient Care and STDS 2007, 21(Suppl 1):S68-S76.
79. Sterne J.A., May M., Costagliola D., de Wolf F., Phillips A.N., Harris R., et al. Timing of initiation of antiretroviral therapy in AIDS-free HIV-1-infected patients: A collaborative analysis of 18 HIV cohort studies. Lancet 2009, 373:1352-1363.
80. Tegger M.K., Crane H.M., Tapia K.A., Uldall K.K., Holte S.E., Kitahata M.M. The effect of mental illness, substance use, and treatment for depression on the initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected individuals. AIDS Patient Care and STDS 2008, 22:233-243.
81. Thorpe L.E., Frederick M., Pitt J., Cheng I., Watts D.H., Buschur S., et al. Effect of hard-drug use on CD4 cell percentage, HIV RNA level, and progression to AIDS-defining class C events among HIV-infected women. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 2004, 37:1423-1430.
82. Torrens M., Gilchrist G., Domingo-Salvany A. Psychiatric comorbidity in illicit drug users: Substance-induced versus independent disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence 2010.
83. Tucker J.S., Burnam M.A., Sherbourne C.D., Kung F.Y., Gifford A.L. Substance use and mental health correlates of nonadherence to antiretroviral medications in a sample of patients with human immunodeficiency virus infection. The American Journal of Medicine 2003, 114:573-580.
84. Turner B.J., Fleishman J.A., Wenger N., London A.S., Burnam M.A., Shapiro M.F., et al. Effects of drug abuse and mental disorders on use and type of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected persons. Journal of General Internal Medicine: Official Journal of the Society for Research and Education In Primary Care Internal Medicine 2001, 16:625-633.
85. United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime 2008 World Report 2008, United Nations, Vienna.
86. Wilson T.E., Barron Y., Cohen M., Richardson J., Greenblatt R., Sacks H.S., et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and its association with sexual behavior in a national sample of women with human immunodeficiency virus. Clinical Infectious Diseases: an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2002, 34:529-534.
87. Wood E., Hogg R.S., Lima V.D., Kerr T., Yip B., Marshall B.D., et al. Highly active antiretroviral therapy and survival in HIV-infected injection drug users. JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association 2008, 300:550-554.
88. Wynn G.H., Cozza K.L., Zapor M.J., Wortmann G.W., Armstrong S.C. Med-psych drug-drug interactions update. Antiretrovirals, part III: Antiretrovirals and drugs of abuse. Psychosomatics 2005, 46:79-87.
89. Wynn G.H., Zapor M.J., Smith B.H., Wortmann G., Oesterheld J.R., Armstrong S.C., et al. Antiretrovirals, part 1: Overview, history, and focus on protease inhibitors. Psychosomatics 2004, 45:262-270.
90. Zapor M.J., Cozza K.L., Wynn G.H., Wortmann G.W., Armstrong S.C. Antiretrovirals, Part II: Focus on non-protease inhibitor antiretrovirals (NRTIs, NNRTIs, and fusion inhibitors). Psychosomatics 2004, 45:524-535.
91. Zhou S.F., Xue C.C., Yu X.Q., Li C., Wang G. Clinically important drug interactions potentially involving mechanism-based inhibition of cytochrome P450 3A4 and the role of therapeutic drug monitoring. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 2007, 29:687-710.