Recent advances in conjugated polymers for light emitting devices

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 12, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 2036-2054

  AlSalhi, Mohamad Saleh ^a,b   Alam, Javed ^a   Dass, Lawrence Arockiasamy ^a   Raja, Mohan ^a  

^a KING SAUD UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^b KING SAUD UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

Conjugated polymers; Fluorescent polymers; Organic light emitting diodes; Polymer laser devices; Semiconductor

Indexed keywords

BIOMATERIAL; POLYMER; ORGANIC COMPOUND;

CONJUGATION; IMAGE ANALYSIS; IMAGE QUALITY; LASER; LIGHT EMITTING DIODE; LUMINESCENCE; PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY; PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT; REVIEW; SEMICONDUCTOR; SOLID STATE LASER; VALIDATION PROCESS; CHEMISTRY; DEVICES; ILLUMINATION;

LASERS; LIGHTING; ORGANIC CHEMICALS; POLYMERS; SEMICONDUCTORS;

EID: 79953323926     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms12032036     Document Type: Review

References (172)

1. May, P. Polymer electronics. Phys. World 1995, 8, 52-57.
2. Nakada, H.; Tohma, T. Inorganic and Organic Electroluminescence; Wissenschaft-und-Technik: Berlin, Germany, 1996; pp. 385-390.
3. Patil, A.O.; Heeger, A.J.; Wudl, F. Optical properties. Chem. Rev. 1988, 88, 183-200.
4. Burroughes, J.H.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Brown, A.R.; Marks, R.N.; Mackay, K.; Friend, R.H.; Burns, P.L.; Holmes, A.B. Light-emitting-diodes based on conjugated polymers. Nature 1990, 347, 539-541.
5. Bradley, D. Electroluminescent polymers. Curr. Opin. Solid State. Mater. Sci. 1996, 1, 789-797.
6. Show, A.C.; Tzu, H.J.; Hsin, H.L. A review on the emitting species in conjugated polymers for photo- and electro-luminescence. J. Chin. Chem. Soc. 2010, 57, 439-458.
7. Fox, K.C. Light-emitting plastics. New Sci. 1994, 141, 3-37.
8. Baigent, D.R.; Greenham, N.C.; Grüner, J.; Marks, R.N.; Friend, R.H.; Moratti, S.C.; Holmes, A.B. Conjugated polymer EL. Synth. Met. 1994, 67, 3-10.
9. Yam, P. Polymer electronics. Sci. Am. 1995, 273, 74-79.
10. Greenham, N.C.; Friend, R.H. Physics of conjugated polymers. Solid State Phys. 1995, 49, 1-149.
11. Gymer, R.W. Organic EL displays. Endeavour 1996, 20, 115-120.
12. Rothberg, L.J.; Lovinger, A.J. Organic EL. Mater. Res. 1996, 11, 3174-3187.
13. Salbeck, J.; Bunsenges, B. EL with organic compounds. Phys. Chem. 1996, 100, 1666-1677.
14. Salaneck, W.R.; Stafström, S.; Breâdas, J.-L. Conjugated polymer interfaces. In Conjugated Polymer Surfaces and Interfaces; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1996.
15. Sheats, J.R.; Antoniadis, H.; Hueschen, M.; Leonard, W.; Miller, J.; Moon, R.; Roitman, D.; Stocking, A. Organic EL devices. Science 1996, 273, 884-888.
16. Lovinger, A.J.; Rothberg, L.J. Organic transistors. Mater. Res. 1996, 11, 1581-1592.
17. Feast, W.J.; Tsibouklis, J.; Pouwer, K.L.; Groenendaal, L.; Meijer, E.W. Synthesis of conjugated polymers. Polymer 1996, 37, 5017-5047.
18. Yang, Y. Polymer EL and LECs. MRS Bull. 1997, 22, 31-38.
19. Friend, R.H.; Denton, G.J.; Halls, J.J.M.; Harrison, N.T.; Holmes, A.B.; Köhler, A.; Lux, A.A.; Moratti, S.C.; Pichler, K.; Tessler, N.; Towns, C. Polymer device structures. Synth. Met. 1997, 84, 463-470.
20. Díaz-García, M.A.; Hide, F.; Schwartz, B.J.; Andersson, M.R.; Pei, Q.; Heeger, A.J. García plastic lasers. Synth. Met. 1997, 84, 455-462.
21. Deuûen, M.; Bässler, H. Organic LEDs. Chem. Unserer Zeit. 1997, 31, 76-86.
22. Hide, F.; Díaz-García, M.A.; Schwartz, B.J.; Heeger, A.J.; New developments in the photonic applications of conjugated polymers. Acc. Chem. Res. 1997, 30, 430-436.
23. Isabelle, L.R.; Ananth, D.; Paul, B. Novel organic materials and technological advances for photonics. Synth. Met. 2002, 127, 1-2.
24. Adam, P.; Patrice, R. Processible conjugated polymers: From organic semiconductors to organic metals and superconductors. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2002, 27, 135-190.
25. Brédas, J.L.; Dory, M.; Thémans, B.; Delhalle, J.; André, J.M. Electronic structure and nonlinear optical properties of aromatic polymers and their derivatives. Synthe. Met. 1989, 28, 533-542.
26. Gerwin, H.G.; John, M.W.; Marcus, R.; Dieter, N. Narrow-band emissions from conjugated-polymer films. Chem. Phys. Lett. 1997, 265, 320-326.
27. Olle, I.; Fengling, Z. Polymer optoelectronics-towards nanometer dimensions. Nanotechnol. Nano-Interface Controll. Electr. Dev. 2003, 1, 65-81.
28. Östergård, T.; Kvarnström, C.; Stubb, H.; Ivaska, A. Electrochemically prepared light-emitting diodes of poly(para-phenylene). Thin Solid Films 1997, 311, 58-61.
29. Anto, R.I.; Hsiang, C.C.; Wunshain, F.; Ying, S.H.; Jeng, U.S.; Hsud, C.H.; Kang, Y.P.; Show, A.C. Structure and charge transport properties in MEH-PPV. Synth. Met. 2003,139, 581-584.
30. Salt, M.G.; Barnesw, L.; Samuel, D.W. Photonic band structure and emissive characteristics of MEH-PPV textured microcavities. J. Mod. Opt. 2001, 48, 1085-1098.
31. Veronica, S.; Enrique, J.L.C.; Sue, A.C. Photoluminescence enhancement in MEH-PPV polymer thin films by surfactant addition. Macromolecules 2006, 39, 5830-5835.
32. Santos, D.A.; Quattrocchi, C.; Brédas, J.L. Electronic structure of polyparaphenylene vinylene copolymers and derivatives: Aspects related to electrolurninescence characteristics. Br. J. Phys. 1994, 24, 755-763.
33. Bathelt, R.; Buchhauser, D.; Gärditz, C.; Paetzold, R.; Wellmann, P. Light extraction from OLEDs for lighting applications through light scattering. Org. Electr. 2007, 8, 293-299.
34. Alan, M. Solid state lighting-A world of expanding opportunities at LED. III-Vs Rev. 2002, 16, 30-33.
35. Ullrich, S. Lighting up materials. Mater. Today 2007, 10, 59-59.
36. Shinar, J.; Shinar R. An overview of organic light-emitting diodes and their applications. In Comprehensive Nanoscience and Technology; Chapter 1.04; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherland, 2011; pp.73-107.
37. Donal, B. Electroluminescent polymers: Materials, physics and device engineering. Curr. Opin. Solid State. Mater. Sci. 1996, 1, 789-797.
38. Myeon, C.C.; Youngkyoo, K.; Chang, S.H. Polymers for flexible displays: From material selection to device applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2008, 33, 581-630.
39. Fletcher, R.B.; Lidzey, D.G.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Walker, S.; Inbasekaran M.; Woo, E.P. High brightness conjugated polymer LEDs. Synth. Met. 2000, 111-112, 151-153.
40. Carpi, F.; Rossi, D.D. Colours from electroactive polymers: Electrochromic, electroluminescent and laser devices based on organic materials. Optic. Laser Tech. 2006, 38, 292-305.
41. Towns, C.R.; Grizzi, I.; Roberts, M.; Wehrum A. Conjugated polymer-Based light emitting diodes. J. Luminesc. 2007, 122-123, 976-979.
42. Roger, J.M.; Aubrey, L.D.; John, R.R. Electrochromic organic and polymeric materials for display applications. Displays 2006, 27, 2-18.
43. Adam, P.; Patrice, R. Processible conjugated polymer: From organic semiconductors to organic metals and superconductors. Prog. polym. Sci. 2002, 27, 135-190.
44. Ley, K.D.; Schanze, K.S. Photophysics of metal-organic π-conjugated polymer. Coord. Chem. Rev. 1998,171, 287-307.
45. Palaciosa, R.E.; Leea, K.-J.; Rivala, A.; Adachia, T.; Bolingera, J.C.; Fradkina, L.; Barbara, P.F. Single conjugated polymer nanoparticle capacitors. Chem. Phys. 2009, 357, 21-27.
46. Naegele, D.; Bittihn, R. Electrically conductive polymers as rechargeable battery electrodes. Solid State Ion. 1988, 28-30, 983-989.
47. Himadri, S.M.; Chiara, B.; Alberto, B.; Amlan, J.P. Memory applications of a thiophene-based conjugated polymer by photoluminescence measurements. Synthe. Met. 2005, 148, 175-178.
48. Takakazu, Y.; Naoki, H. π-Conjugated polymer bearing electronic and optical functionalities. Preparation, properties and their applications. React. Funct. Polym. 1998, 37, 1-17.
49. Andreas, G.; Heidi, M.; Anne, N.; Norbert, S.; Walter, H. Aspects of synthesis, analysis and application of aromatic conjugated polymer. Polymer 1991, 32, 1857-1861.
50. Altamura, P.; Bearzotti, A.; D'Amico, A.; Foglietti, V.; Fratoddi, I.; Furlani, A.; Padeletti, G.; Russo, M.V.; Scavia, G. Electrical and morphological characterisation of new π-conjugated polymer films as gas sensors. Mater. Sci. Eng. C 1998, 5, 217-222.
51. Pawel, W.; Pierre-Henri, A.; Laurence, L.; Dirk, V. Conjugated polymer based on new thienylene-PPV derivatives for solar cell applications. Electrochem. Commun. 2002, 4, 912-916.
52. Holdcroft, S. Patterning π-conjugated polymers. Adv. Mater. 2001, 13, 1753-1765.
53. Dai, L.; Winkler, B.; Dong, L.; Tong, L.; Mau, A.W.H. Conjugated polymers for light-emitting applications. Adv. Mater. 2001, 13, 915-925.
54. McGehee, M.D.; Heeger, A.J. Semiconducting (conjugated) polymers as materials for solid-state lasers. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 1655-1668.
55. Gierschner, J.; Cornil J.; Egelhaaf, H.J. Optical bandgaps of π-conjugated organic materials at the polymer limit: Experiment and theory. Adv. Mater. 2007, 19, 173-191.
56. Zoltán, G.S.; Douglas, S.G.; Shahab, E. Fluorescence and excited-state structure of conjugated polymers. Adv. Mater. 1994, 6, 280-287.
57. Leger, J.M. Organic electronics: The ions have it. Adv. Mater. 2008, 20, 837-841.
58. Mary, O.N.; Stephen, M.K. Ordered materials for organic electronics and photonics. Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 566-584.
59. Luping, Y.; Zhenan, B. Conjugated polymers exhibiting liquid crystallinity. Adv. Mater. 1994, 6, 156-159.
60. Bernius, M.T.; Inbasekaran, M.; O'Brien J.; Wu, W. Progress with light-emitting polymers. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 1737-1750.
61. Optoelectronics Group, Cavendish Laboratory, Univerisy of Cambridge: Cambridge, UK, 2010; Available online: http://www.oe.phy.cam.ac.uk (accessed on 7 March 2011).
62. Kallinger, C.; Hilmer, M.; Haugeneder, A.; Perner, M.; Spirkl, W.; Lemmer, U.; Feldmann, J.; Scherf, U.; Müllen, K.; Gombert, A.; Wittwer, V. A flexible conjugated polymer laser. Adv. Mater. 1998, 10, 920-923.
63. Donal, D.C.B. Elctroluminescence: A bright future for conjugated polymers? Adv. Mater. 1992, 4, 756-758.
64. Holmes, A.B.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Brown, A.R.; Burn, P.L.; Burroughes, J.H.; Friend, R.H.; Greenham, N.C.; Gymer, R.W.; Angew, D.A. EL in conjugated polymers. Chem. Int. Ed. 1998, 37, 402-428.
65. Friend, R.H.; Bradley, D.D.C.; Holmes, A.B. Polymer LEDs. Phys. World 1992, 5, 42-46.
66. Bäuerle, D. Laser processing and chemistry: Recent developments. Appl. Sur. Sci. 2002, 186, 1-6.
67. Akcelrud, L. Electroluminescent polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2003, 28, 875-962.
68. Tarver, J.; Yoo, J.E.; Loo, Y.-L. Organic Electronic Devices with Water-Dispersible Conducting Polymers. In Comprehensive Nanoscience and Technology; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherland, 2011; pp. 413-446.
69. Antonio, F. π-Conjugated polymers for organic electronics and photovoltaic cell applications. Chem. Mater. 2011, 23, 733-758.
70. Schumacher, S.; Galbraith, I.; Ruseckas, A.; Turnbull, G.A.; Samuel, I.D.W. Dynamics of photoexcitation and stimulated optical emission in conjugated polymers: A multiscale quantum-chemistry and Maxwell-Bloch-equations approach. Phys. Rev. B 2010, 81, 245407-245411.
71. Ebinazar, B. N.; Ifor, D.W.S.; Deepak, S.; Dianne, M.M.; Yanming, S.; Ben, B.Y.H.; Daniel, M.; Alan, J.H. Organic light emitting complementary inverters. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2010, 96, 043304:1-043304:3.
72. Carlos, S. Organic semiconductors: A little energy goes a long way. Nature Mater. 2010, 9, 884-885.
73. Li, C.; Zhishan, B. Three-dimensional conjugated macromolecules as light-emitting materials. Polymer 2010, 51, 4273-4294.
74. Adam, J.M. Power from plastic. Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2010, 14, 123-130.
75. Shufen, C.; Lingling, D.; Jun, X.; Ling, P.; Linghai, X.; Quli, F.; Wei, H. Recent developments in top-emitting organic light-emitting diodes. Adv. Mater. 2010, 22, 5227-5239.
76. Taeshik, E.; Eilaf, A.; Samson, A.J. Solution-processed highly efficient blue phosphorescent polymer light-emitting diodes enabled by a new electron transport material. Adv. Mater. 2010, 22, 4744-4748.
77. Tao, R.; Qiao, J.; Duan, L.; Qiu, Y. Blue phosphorescence materials for organic light-emitting diodes. Prog. Chem. 2010, 22, 2215-2227.
78. Jenny, C.; Guglielmo, L. Organic photonics for communications. Nature Phot. 2010, 4, 438-446.
79. Neil, W. Conjugated polymers: Phases go their separate ways. Nature Chem. 2010, 1, 748-748.
80. Shahul, H.; Predeep, P.; Baiju, M.R. Polymer light emitting diodes-A review on Materials and techniques. Rev. Adv. Mater. Sci. 2010, 26, 30-42.
81. Stefano, T. Lighting technology: Time to change the bulb. Nature 2009, 459, 312-314.
82. Ebinazar, B.N.; Minghong, T.; Peter L.; Sarah, R.M.; Jonathan, D.Y.; Daniel, M.; Alan, J.H. Low threshold in polymer lasers on conductive substrates by distributed feedback nanoimprinting: Progress toward electrically pumped plastic lasers. Adv. Mater. 2009, 21, 799-802.
83. Jiang, H.; Taranekar, P.; Reynolds, J.R.; Schanze, K.S. Conjugated polyelectrolytes: Synthesis, photophysics, and applications. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2009, 48, 4300-4316.
84. Rachel, A.S.; Bryan, M.; Saar, K.; Jeffrey, J.U. Block copolymers for organic optoelectronics. Macromolecules 2009, 42, 9205-9216.
85. Daniele, B.; Gilles, H. High-performance organic field-effect transistors. Adv. Mater. 2008, 21, 1473-1486.
86. Ling, Q.; Liaw, D.; Zhu, C.; Chan, D.; Kang, E.; Neoh, K. Polymer electronic memories: Materials, devices and mechanisms. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2008, 33, 917-978.
87. Kalinowski, J. Optical materials for organic light-emitting devices. Opt. Mater. 2008, 30, 792-799.
88. Johannes, K.F. Poly (arylene vinylene)s. High Perform. Polym. 2008, 1, 89-137.
89. Inamul, H.R.; Jae, Y.L.; In, T.K.; So, H.L. Recent progress in the development of polymers for white light-emitting polymer devices. Monatsh. Chem. 2008, 139, 725-737.
90. Abouelaoualim, D.; Assouag, M.; Elmidaoui, A. Numerical study of electrical characteristics of conjugated polymer light-emitting diodes. Semiconduct. Phys. Quantum Electron. Optoelectr. 2008, 11, 151-153.
91. Yang, X.; Lee, C.-L.; Westenhoff, S.; Zhang, X.; Greenham, N.C. Saturation, relaxation, and dissociation of excited triplet excitons in conjugated polymers. Adv. Mater. 2008, 20, 1-4.
92. Sven, M.; Physics, G.L.; Novaled, A. Highly efficient white PIN OLEDs for lighting applications. LED J. 2008, 1, 40-41.
93. Sony XEL-1: The world's first OLED TV; Sony, a.b.: Tokyo, Japan, 2008; Available online: www.OLED-Info.com (accessed on 21 March 2011).
94. Samuel, I.D.W. Organic semiconductor lasers. Chem. Rev. 2007, 107, 1272-1295.
95. Friend, R. Polymers show they're metal. Nature 2006, 441, 1.
96. Amarasinghe, D.; Ruseckas, A.; Vasdekis, A.E.; Goossens, M.; Turnbull, G.A.; Samuel, I.D.W. Broadband solid state optical amplifier based on a semi conducting polymer. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2006, 89, 2011-2019.
97. Roger, J.M.; Aubrey, L.D.; John, R.R. Electrochromic organic and polymeric materials for display applications. Displays 2006, 27, 2-18.
98. Danilo, D. Electrochemiluminescence from organic emitters. Chem. Mater. 2005, 17, 1933-1945.
99. Service, R.F. Organic LEDs look forward to a bright, white future. Science 2005, 310, 1762-1763.
100. Lidzeya, D.G.; Voigta, M.; Giebelerb, C.; Buckleyb, A.; Wrightb, J.; Böhlenc, K, Fieretc, J.; Allottc, R. Laser-assisted patterning of conjugated polymer light emitting diodes. Org. Electr. 2005, 6, 221-228.
101. Stuart, S.; David, P.; Tim, M. Case Study: Cambridge Display Technology Ltd., 20th Version; University of Cambridge Centre for Technology Management: Cambridge, UK, 2005; pp. 1-19.
102. D'Andrade, B.W.; Forrest, S.R. White organic light emitting devices for solid state lighting. Adv. Mater. 2004, 16, l585-l595.
103. Abhishek, P.K.; Christopher, J.T.; Amit, B.; Samson, A.J. Electron transport materials for organic light-emitting diodes. Chem. Mater. 2004, 16, 4556-4573.
104. Forrest, S.R. The path to ubiquitous and low-cost organic electronic appliances on plastic. Nature 2004, 428, 911-918.
105. Josemon, J.; Luke, O.; Jingying, Z.; Martin, G.; Emil, J.W.L.; Andrew, C.G.; Klaus, M. Progress towards stable blue light-emitting polymer. Curr. Appl. Phys. 2004, 4, 339-342.
106. Ifor, D.W.S. Laser physics: Fantastic plastic. Nature 2004, 429, 709-711.
107. Ifor, D.W.S. Towards polymer lasers and amplifiers ultrafast photonics. Ultrafast Phot. 2004, 1, 291-304.
108. Hiroyuki, S. Organic light-emitting materials and devices for optical communication technology. J. Photochem. Photobiol. 2004, 166, 155-161.
109. John, K.B. Developments in organic displays. Mater. Today 2004, 7, 42-46.
110. Asawapirom, U.; Gadermaier, S.; Gamerith, R.; Güntner, T.; Kietzke, S.; Patil, T.; Piok, R.; Montenegro, B.; Stiller, B.; Tiersch, K.; Landfester, E.; Scherf, U.; Materials for polymer electronics applications-Semiconducting polymer thin films and nanoparticles. Macromol. Symp. 2004, 212, 83-91.
111. Hong-Ku, S.; Jung-Il, J. Light-emitting characteristics of conjugated polymers. Adv. Polym. Sci. 2002, 158, 193-243.
112. David, B. Semiconducting polymer LEDs. Mater. Today 2002, 5, 3032-3039.
113. Hung, L.S.; Chen, C.H. Recent progress of molecular organic electroluminescent materials and devices. Mater. Sci. Eng. Reas. 2002, 39, 143-222.
114. Köhler, A.; Wilson, J.S.; Friend, R.H. Fluorescence and phosphorescence in organic materials. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2002, 4, 453-459.
115. Brabec, C.J.; Winder, C.; Sariciftci, N.S.; Hummelen, J.C.; Dhanabalan, A.; van Hal, P.A.; Janssen, R.A.J. A low-bandgap semiconducting polymer for photovoltaic devices and infrared emitting devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2002, 12, 709-712.
116. Vander Horst, J.-W.; Bobbert, P.A.; Michels, M.A.J. Electronic and optical excitations in crystalline conjugated polymers. Phys. Rev. 2002, B 66, 035206:1-035206:7.
117. Heeger, A.J. Nobel Lecture-Semiconducting and metallic polymers-The fourth generation of polymeric materials. Rev. Modern Phys. 2001, 73, 681-700.
118. McDiarmid, A.G. Nobel lecture--''Synthetic metals''-A novel role for organic polymers. Rev. Modern Phys. 2001, 73, 701-712.
119. Shirakawa, H. Nobel lecture: The discovery of polyacetylene film-The dawning of an era of conducting polymers. Rev. Modern Phys. 2001, 73, 713-718.
120. Philip, B. A happier marriage. Nature News, 2001, 1, 010201-010203.
121. Scherf, U.; Riechel, S.; Lemmer, U.; Mahrt, R.F. Conjugated polymers: Lasing and stimulated emission. Curr. Opin. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2001, 5, 143-154.
122. Friend, R.H. Conjugated polymers. New materials for optoelectronic devices. Pure Appl. Chem. 2001, 73, 425-430.
123. Lee, C.H.; Kang, G.W.; Jeon, J.W.; Song, W.J.; Kim, S.Y.; Seoul, C. Photoluminescence and electroluminescence of vacuum-deposited poly (p-phenylene) thin film. Synth. Met. 2001, 117, 75-79.
124. Ding, L.; Karasz, F.E.; Lin, Z.; Zheng, M. Effect of forster energy transfer and hole transport layer on performance of polymer light-emitting diodes. Macromolecules 2001, 34, 9183-9188.
125. Ball, P. Let there be more light. Nature News 2000, 1, 000217-11.
126. Kranzelbinder, G.; Leising, G. Organic solid-state lasers. Rep. Prog. Phys. 2000, 63, 729-762.
127. Mitschke, U.; Bäuerle, P. The electroluminescence of organic materials. J. Mater. Chem. 2000, 10, 1471-1507.
128. Luh, T.-Y.; Basu, S.; Chen, R.-M. Electroluminescent polymeric materials. Curr. Sci. 2000, 78, 1352-1357.
129. Marai, F. Photoluminescence and electroluminescence investigations in PEPPV and its derivatives. Synth. Met. 2000, 114, 255-259.
130. Gross, M.; Müller, D.C.; Nothofer, H.-G.; Scherf, U.; Neher, D.; Bräuchle, C.; Meerholz, K. Improving the performance of doped π-conjugated polymers for use in organic light-emitting diodes. Nature 2000, 405, 661-665.
131. Sun, R.G.; Wang, Y.Z.; Wang, D.K.; Zheng, Q.B.; Kyllo, E.M.; Gustafson, T.L.; Fosong W.; Epstein, A.J. High PL quantum efficiency of poly (phenylene vinylene) systems through exciton confinement. Synth. Met. 2000, 111, 595-602.
132. Mark, T.B.; Mike, I.; Jim, O.; Weishi, W. Progress with light-emitting polymers. Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 1737-1750.
133. Ifor, D.W.; Samuel, G.A.T. Polymer lasers: Recent advances. Mater. Today 2004, 1, 28-35.
134. Ho, G.-K.; Meng, H.-F.; Lin, S.-C.; Horng, S.-F.; Hsu, C.-S.; Chen, L.-C.; Chang, S.-M. Efficient white light emission in conjugated polymer homojunctions. Appl. Phys. Lett. 2004, 85, 4567-4578.
135. Blatchford, J.W.; Gustafson, T.L.; Epstein, A.J.; Vanden Bout, D.A.; Kerimo, J.; Higgins, D.A.; Barbara, P.F.; Fu, D.-K.; Swager, T.M.; MacDiarmid, A.G. Spatially and temporally resolved emission from aggregates in conjugated polymers. Phys. Rev. B 1996, 54, 3683-3686.
136. Mohd, H.H.; Elias, S.; Anuar, K.; Noorhana, Y.; Ekramul, M. Conjugated conducting polymers: A brief overview. JASA 2007, 2, 63-68.
137. Heeger, A.J. Semiconducting polymers: The third generation. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 2354-2371.
138. Dong, H.P.; Mi, S.K.; Jinsoo, J. Hybrid nanostructures using π-conjugated polymers and nanoscale metals: Synthesis, characteristics, and optoelectronic applications. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 2439-2452.
139. Serguei, B.; Natasha, K. Physical theory of excitons in conducting polymers. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 2453-2465.
140. Alexander, L.K.; Igor, F.P.; Peter, J.S. Star-shaped π-conjugated oligomers and their applications in organic electronics and photonics. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2010, 39, 2695-2728.
141. Ding, L.; Egbe, D.A.M.; Karasz, F.E. Photophysical and optoelectronic properties of green-emitting alkoxy-substituted PE/PV hybrid conjugated polymers. Macromolecules 2004, 37, 124-131.
142. Friend, R.H. Conjugated polymers. New materials foroptoelectronic devices. Pure Appl. Chem. 2001, 73, 425-430.
143. Piok, T.; Plank, H.; Mauthner, G.; Gamerith, S.; Gadermaier, C.; Wenzl, F.P.; Patil, S.; Montenegro, R.; Bouguettaya, M.; Reynolds, J.R.; Scherf, U.; Landfester, K.; List, E.J.W. Solution processed conjugated polymer multilayer structures for light emitting devices. Jap. J. Appl. Phys. 2005, 44, 479-484.
144. Jacob, J.; Oldridge, L.; Zhang, J.; Gaal, M.; List, E. J. W.; Grimsdale, A. C.; Müllen, K. Progress towards stable blue light emitting polymers. Curr. Appl. Phys. 2004, 4, 339-342.
145. Emil, J.W.L.; Günther, L. Excitation energy migration assisted processes in conjugated polymers. Synth. Met. 2004, 141, 211-218.
146. Bradley, D.D.C. Conjugated polymer electroluminescence. Synth. Met. 1993, 54, 401-415.
147. Hertel, D.; Setayesh, S.; Nothofer, H.G.; Scherf, U.; Müllen, K.; Bässler H. Phosphorescence in conjugated poly(para-phenylene)-derivatives. Adv. Mater. 2001, 13, 65-70.
148. Francis, G. Functionalized conducting polymers-Towards intelligent materials. Adv. Mater. 1989, 1, 117-121.
149. Staring, E.G.J.; Demandt, R.C.J.E.; Braun, D.; Rikken, G.L.J.; Kessener, Y.A.R.R.; Venhuizen, T.H.J.; Wynberg, H.; Hoeve, W.T.; Spoelstra, K.J. Photo- and electroluminescence efficiency in soluble poly (dialky1-p-phenylenevinylene). Adv. Mater. 1994, 6, 934-937.
150. Skotheim, T.A. Handbook of Conducting Polymers, 2nd ed.; CRC Press: New York, NY, USA, 1997; pp. 343-351.
151. Do, H.H.; Jeong, I.L.; Nam, S.C.; Hong, K.S. Light-emitting properties of a germyl-substituted PPV derivative synthesized via a soluble precursor. J. Mater. Chem. 2004, 14, 1026-1030.
152. Andrew, C.G.; Khai, L.C.; Rainer, E.M.; Pawel, G.J.; Andrew, B.H. Synthesis of light-emitting conjugated polymers for applications in electroluminescent devices. Chem. Rev. 2009, 109, 897-1091.
153. Xiao, S.; Wang, S.; Fang, H.; Li, Y.; Shi, Z.; Du, C.; Zhu, D. Synthesis and characterization of a novel class of PPV derivatives covalently linked to C60. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2001, 22, 1313-1318.
154. Chen, Z.-K.; Nancy, H.S.L.; Wei, H.; Xu, Y.-S.; Yong, C. New phenyl-substituted PPV derivatives for polymer light-emitting diodes-synthesis, characterization and structure-property relationship study. Macromolecules 2003, 36, 1009-1020.
155. Seung, W.K.; Byung, J.J.; Taek, A.; Hong, K.S. Novel poly(p-phenylenevinylene)s with an electron-withdrawing cyanophenyl group. Macromolecules 2002, 35, 6217-6223.
156. Neef C.J.; Ferraris, J.P. MEH-PPV: Improved synthetic procedure and molecular weight control. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 2311-2314.
157. A new milestone in the OPAL research project. OSRAM Opto Semiconductors: Woodmead, South Africa, 17 March 2008. Available online: http://osram-os.com.cn/osram_os/EN/News_Center/Spotlights/Technology/OLED-lighting-achieves-high-levels-of-efficiency-and-lifetime.html (accessed on 2 March 2011).
158. OLED-DISPLAY, Austria, 2010. Available online: http://www.oled-display.net/video-about-oled-lighting-applications-from-ge (accessed on 2 March 2011).
159. Pei, J.; Yu, W.-L.; Huang, W. A novel series of efficient thiophene-based light-emitting conjugated polymers and application in polymer light-emitting diodes. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 2462-2471.
160. Eritt, M.; May, C.; Leo, K.; Toerker, M.; Radehaus, C. OLED manufacturing for large area lighting applications. Thin Solid Films 2010, 518, 3042-3045.
161. Ullrich, S. Lighting up materials. Mater. Today 2007, 10, 59-61.
162. Alan, M. Solid state lighting-A world of expanding opportunities at LED. III-Vs Rev. 2003, 16, 30-33.
163. Towns, C.R.; Grizzi, I.; Roberts, M.; Wehrum, A. Conjugated polymer-based light emitting diodes. J. Luminesc. 2007, 122-123, 976-979.
164. Tzamalis, G.; Lemaur, V.; Karlsson, F.; Holtz, P.O.; Andersson, M.; Crispin, X.; Cornil, J.; Berggren, M. Fluorescence light emission at 1 eV from a conjugated polymer. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2010, 489, 92-95.
165. Gazotti, W.A.; Nogueira, A.F.; Girotto, E.M.; Micaroni, L.; Martini, M.; Neves, S.; De Paoli, M.A. Optical devices based on conductive polymers. In Handbook of Advanced Electronic and Photonic Materials and Devices; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 2001; Volume 10, pp. 53-98.
166. Jain, S.C.; Willander, M.; Kumar, V. Conducting organic materials and devices. Semiconduct. Semimet. 2007, 81, 1-188.
167. Gaal, M.; Gadermaier, C.; Plank, H.; Moderegger, E.; Pogantsch, A.; Leising, G.; List, E.J.W. Imprinted conjugated polymer laser. Adv. Mater. 2003, 14, 1165-1167.
168. Watanabea, M.; Yamasakia, N.; Nakaoa, T.; Masuyamaa, K.; Kuboa, H.; Fujii, A.; Ozakia, M. Optical and electrical properties and photoexcited laser oscillation of composite film based on π-conjugated polymer. Synth. Met. 2009, 159, 935-938.
169. Wegmann, G.; Giessen, H.; Hertel, D.; Mahrt, R.F. Blue-green laser emission from a solid conjugated polymer. Solid State Commun.1997, 104, 759-762.
170. Ruidong, X.; George, H.; Yanbing, H.; Donal, D.C.B. Fluorene-based conjugated polymer optical gain media. Org. Electr. 2003, 4, 165-177.
171. Polson, R.C.; Vardeny, Z.V. Laser action in organic semiconductors. In Comprehensive Nanoscience and Technology; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherland, 2011; Chapter 1.03, pp. 41-71.
172. Tessler, N. Laser devices from molecular and polymers semiconductors. Encyclopedia Mater: Sci. Technol. 2008, 1, 4402-4407.