Diagnosis, pathophysiology, and management of mood disorders in pregnant and postpartum women

Obstetrics and Gynecology

Volumn 117, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 961-977

  Yonkers, Kimberly Ann ^a,b,c   Vigod, Simone ^a,b   Ross, Lori E ^a,b  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c NONE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMFEBUTAMONE; CARBAMAZEPINE; CITALOPRAM; ESTROGEN; LAMOTRIGINE; LITHIUM; MOOD STABILIZER; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PAROXETINE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; VALPROIC ACID;

ARTICLE; BIPOLAR DISORDER; DEPRESSION; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG SAFETY; FEMALE; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MANIA; PATIENT COUNSELING; PERSISTENT PULMONARY HYPERTENSION; PREGNANCY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUERPERIUM; RELAPSE; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; TERATOGENICITY;

EID: 79953209732     PISSN: 00297844     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0b013e31821187a7     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Koretz D, Merikangas KR, et al. The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). JAMA 2003;289:3095-105. (Pubitemid 37432885)
2. Hasin DS, Goodwin RD, Stinson FS, Grant BF. Epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcoholism and Related Conditions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2005;62:1097-106. (Pubitemid 41396935)
3. Weissman MM, Bland R, Joyce PR, Newman S, Wells JE, Wittchen HU. Sex differences in rates of depression: crossnational perspectives. J Affect Disord 1993;29:77-84. (Pubitemid 23334115)
4. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders, 4th ed. Arlington (VA): American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
5. Gelenberg A, Freeman M, Markowitz J, Rosenbaum JF, Thase ME, Trivedi MH, et al. American Psychiatric Association practice guidelines for the treatment of patients with major depressive disorder. 3rd ed. Arlington (VA): American Psychiatric Association; 2010. p. 152.
6. Rush AJ, Golden WE, Hall GW, Herrera M, Houston A, Kathol RG, et al. Depression in primary care: volume 2. Treatment of major depression. Clinical Practice Guideline Number 5. Rockville (MD): Agency for Health Care Policy and Research; 1993.
7. Birmaher B, Axelson D, Monk K, Kalas C, Goldstein B, Hickey MB, et al. Lifetime psychiatric disorders in schoolaged offspring of parents with bipolar disorder: The Pittsburgh Bipolar Offspring Study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009; 66:287-96.
8. Viguera AC, Cohen LS. The course and management of bipolar disorder during pregnancy. Psychopharmacol Bull 1998;34:339-46. (Pubitemid 28537957)
9. McNeil TF. A prospective study of postpartum psychoses in a high-risk group. 2. Relationships to demographic and psychiatric history characteristics. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1987;75: 35-43. (Pubitemid 17019550)
10. Robling SA, Paykel ES, Dunn VJ, Abbott R, Katona C. Long-term outcome of severe puerperal psychiatric illness: a 23 year follow-up study. Psychol Med 2000;30:1263-71.
11. Schopf J, Bryois C, Jonquiere M, Le PK. On the nosology of severe psychiatric post-partum disorders. Results of a catamnestic investigation. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1984; 234:54-63. (Pubitemid 14006909)
12. Videbech P, Gouliaev G. First admission with puerperal psychosis: 7-14 years of follow-up. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1995;91:167-73.
13. Gaynes B, Gavin N, Meltzer-Brody S, Lohr KN, Swinson T, Gartlehner G, et al. Perinatal depression: prevalence, screening accuracy and screening outcomes. Evidence Report/ Technology Assessment No. 119. AHRQ Publication No 5-E006-2. Rockville (MD): Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; 2005.
14. Gavin NI, Gaynes BN, Lohr KN, Meltzer-Brody S, Gartlehner G, Swinson T. Perinatal depression: a systematic review of prevalence and incidence. Obstet Gynecol 2005;106: 1071-83. (Pubitemid 41532916)
15. O'Hara MW. Social support, life events, and depression during pregnancy and the puerperium. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1986;43:569-73. (Pubitemid 16052265)
16. Cooper PJ, Campbell EA, Day A, Kennerley H, Bond A. Non-psychotic psychiatric disorder after childbirth. A prospective study of prevalence, incidence, course and nature. Br J Psychiatry 1988;152:799-806.
17. Cox JL, Murray D, Chapman G. A controlled study of the onset, duration and prevalence of postnatal depression. Br J Psychiatry 1993;163:27-31. (Pubitemid 23188011)
18. O'Hara MW, Zekoski EM, Philipps LH, Wright EJ. Controlled prospective study of postpartum mood disorders: comparison of childbearing and nonchildbearing women. J Abnorm Psychol 1990;99:3-15. (Pubitemid 20117081)
19. Angst F, Stassen HH, Clayton PJ, Angst J. Mortality of patients with mood disorders: follow-up over 34-38 years. J Affect Disord 2002;68:167-81. (Pubitemid 34628324)
20. Dietz PM, Williams SB, Callaghan WM, Bachman DJ, Whitlock EP, Hornbrook MC. Clinically identified maternal depression before, during, and after pregnancies ending in live births. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1515-20. (Pubitemid 350069730)
21. Mota N, Cox BJ, Enns MW, Calhoun L, Sareen J. The relationship between mental disorders, quality of life, and pregnancy: findings from a nationally representative sample. J Affect Disord 2008;109:300-4.
22. Munk-Olsen T, Laursen TM, Pedersen CB, Mors O, Mortensen PB. New parents and mental disorders: a population- based register study. JAMA 2006;296:2582-9. (Pubitemid 44911022)
23. Vesga-Ló pez O, Blanco C, Keyes K, Olfson M, Grant BF, Hasin DS. Psychiatric disorders in pregnant and postpartum women in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2008;65: 805-15.
24. Stowe ZN, Hostetter AL, Newport DJ. The onset of postpartum depression: Implications for clinical screening in obstet- rical and primary care. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2005;192: 522-6. (Pubitemid 40214990)
25. Abiodun OA. Postnatal depression in primary care populations in Nigeria. Gen Hosp Psychiatry;28:133-6.
26. Nakku JE, Nakasi G, Mirembe F. Postpartum major depression at six weeks in primary health care: prevalence and associated factors. Afr Health Sci 2006;6:207-14. (Pubitemid 47019415)
27. O'Hara MW, Swain AM. Rates and risk of postpartum depression-a meta-analysis. Int Rev Psychiatry 1996;8: 37-54.
28. Beck CT. A meta-analysis of predictors of postpartum depression. Nurs Res 1996;45:297-303. (Pubitemid 126433495)
29. Robertson E, Grace S, Wallington T, Stewart DE. Antenatal risk factors for postpartum depression: a synthesis of recent literature. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2004;26:289-95. (Pubitemid 38962393)
30. Lancaster CA, Gold KJ, Flynn HA, Yoo H, Marcus SM, Davis MM. Risk factors for depressive symptoms during pregnancy: a systematic review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2010; 202:5-14.
31. Lorenzetti V, Allen NB, Fornito A, Yü cel M. Structural brain abnormalities in major depressive disorder: a selective review of recent MRI studies. J Affect Disord 2009;117:1-17.
32. Belmaker RH, Agam G. Major depressive disorder. N Engl J Med 2008;358:55-68.
33. Bloch M, Schmidt PJ, Danaceau M, Murphy J, Nieman L, Rubinow DR. Effects of gonadal steroids in women with a history of postpartum depression. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157: 924-30. (Pubitemid 30412343)
34. Ahokas A, Kaukoranta J, Aito M. Effect of oestradiol on postpartum depression. Psychopharmacology 1999;146: 108-10. (Pubitemid 29441121)
35. Gregoire AJP, Kumar R, Everitt B, Henderson AF, Studd JWW. Transdermal oestrogen for treatment of severe postnatal depression. Lancet 1996;347:930-3. (Pubitemid 26102548)
36. Sacher J, Wilson AA, Houle S, Rusjan P, Hassan S, Bloomfield PM, et al. Elevated brain monoamine oxidase A binding in the early postpartum period. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2010; 67:468-74.
37. Maurer-Spurej E, Pittendreigh C, Misri S. Platelet serotonin levels support depression scores for women with postpartum depression. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2007;32:23-9.
38. Doornbos B, Fekkes D, Tanke MA, de Jongee P, Korf J. Sequential serotonin and noradrenalin associated processes involved in postpartum blues. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2008;32:1320-5.
39. Chrousos GP, Torpy DJ, Gold PW. Interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and the female reproductive system: clinical implications. Ann Intern Med 1998;129: 229-40. (Pubitemid 28377514)
40. Magiakou MA, Mastorakos G, Rabin D, Dubbert B, Gold PW, Chrousos GP. Hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone suppression during the postpartum period: implications for the increase in psychiatric manifestations at this time. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996;81:1912-7. (Pubitemid 26152485)
41. Jolley SN, Elmore S, Barnard KE, Carr DB. Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in postpartum depression. Biological Research for Nursing 2007;8:210-22. (Pubitemid 44893424)
42. Yim IS, Glynn LM, Dunkel-Schetter C, Hobel CJ, Chicz- DeMet A, Sandman CA. Risk of postpartum depressive symptoms with elevated corticotropin-releasing hormone in human pregnancy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:162-9.
43. Nierop A, Bratsikas A, Zimmermann R, Ehlert U. Are stress-induced cortisol changes during pregnancy associated with postpartum depressive symptoms? Psychosom Med 2006;68:931-7. (Pubitemid 44808719)
44. Corwin EJ, Pajer K, Corwin EJ, Pajer K. The psychoneuroimmunology of postpartum depression. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2008;17:1529-34.
45. Maes M. The depressogenic effects of cytokines: Implications for the psychological and organic aetiology and treatment of depression. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2002;5:329-31. (Pubitemid 35470353)
46. Maes M, Bosmans E, De Jongh R, Kenis G, Vandoolaeghe E, Neels H. Increased serum IL-6 and IL-1 receptor antagonist concentrations in major depression and treatment resistant depression. Cytokine 1997;9:853-8. (Pubitemid 27494150)
47. Corwin EJ, Johnston N, Pugh L. Symptoms of postpartum depression associated with elevated levels of interleukin-1 beta during the first month postpartum. Biological Research for Nursing 2008;10:128-33.
48. Groer MW, Morgan K. Immune, health and endocrine characteristics of depressed postpartum mothers. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2007;32:133-9. (Pubitemid 46274016)
49. Bunevicius R, Kusminskas L, Mickuviene N, Bunevicius A, Pedersen CA, Pop VJ. Depressive disorder and thyroid axis functioning during pregnancy. World Journal of Biological Psychiatry 2009;10:324-9.
50. McCoy SJ, Beal JM, Payton ME, Stewart AL, DeMers AM, Watson GH. Postpartum thyroid measures and depressive symptomology: a pilot study. J Am Osteopath Assoc 2008; 108:503-7.
51. Harris B. Postpartum depression and thyroid antibody status. Thyroid 1999;9:699-703. (Pubitemid 29357914)
52. Pedersen CA, Johnson JL, Silva S, Bunevicius R, Meltzer- Broday S, Hamer RM, et al. Antenatal thyroid correlates of postpartum depression. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2007;32: 235-45. (Pubitemid 46400277)
53. Pedersen CA, Stern RA, Pate J, Senger MA, Bowes WA, Mason GA. Thyroid and adrenal measures during late pregnancy and the puerperium in women who have been major depressed or who become dysphoric postpartum. J Affect Disord 1993;29:201-11. (Pubitemid 23334124)
54. Kuijpens JL, Vader HL, Drexhage HA, Wiersinga WM, van Son MJ, Pop VJ. Thyroid peroxidase antibodies during gestation are a marker for subsequent depression postpartum. Eur J Endocrinol 2001;145:579-84. (Pubitemid 33061903)
55. Oretti RG, Harris B, Lazarus JH, Parkes AB, Crownshaw T. Is there an association between life events, postnatal depression and thyroid dysfunction in thyroid antibody positive women? Int J Soc Psychiatry 2003;49:70-6. (Pubitemid 36553302)
56. Pop VJ, de Rooy HA, Vader HL, van der Heide D, van Son MM, Komproe IH. Microsomal antibodies during gestation in relation to postpartum thyroid dysfunction and depression. Acta Endocrinol 1993;129:26-30. (Pubitemid 23225787)
57. Parry BL, Meliska CJ, Sorenson DL, Lopez AM, Martinez LF, Nowakowski S, et al. Plasma melatonin circadian rhythm disturbances during pregnancy and postpartum in depressed women and women with personal or family histories of depression. Am J Psychiatry 2008;165:1551-8.
58. Parry BL, Curran ML, Stuenkel CA, Yokimozo M, Tam L, Powell KA, et al. Can critically timed sleep deprivation be useful in pregnancy and postpartum depressions? J Affect Disord 2000;60:201-12.
59. Treloar SA, Martin NG, Bucholz KK, Madden PA, Heath AC. Genetic influences on post-natal depressive symptoms: findings from an Australian twin sample. Psychol Med 1999; 29:645-54. (Pubitemid 29261353)
60. Davidson L, McComb JG, Bowen I, Krieger MD. Craniospinal Langerhans cell histiocytosis in children: 30 years' experience at a single institution. J Neurosurg Pediatr 2008;1: 187-95. (Pubitemid 351346507)
61. Murphy-Eberenz K, Zandi PP, March D, Crowe RR, Scheftner WA, Alexander M, et al. Is perinatal depression familial? J Affect Disord 2006;90:49-55. (Pubitemid 43005037)
62. Sanjuan J, Martin-Santos R, Garcia-Esteve L, Carot JM, Guillamat R, Gutierrez-Zotes A, et al. Mood changes after delivery: role of the serotonin transporter gene. Br J Psychiatry 2008;193:383-8.
63. Mahon PB, Payne JL, MacKinnon DF, Mondimore FM, Goes FS, Schweizer B, et al. Genome-wide linkage and follow-up association study of postpartum mood symptoms. Am J Psychiatry 2009;166:1229-37.
64. Doornbos B, Dijck-Brouwer DA, Kema IP, Tanke MA, van Goor SA, Muskiet FA, et al. The development of peripartum depressive symptoms is associated with gene polymorphisms of MAOA, 5-HTT and COMT. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2009;33:1250-4.
65. Gilbody S, Sheldon T, House A. Screening and case-finding instruments for depression: a meta-analysis. CMAJ 2008;178: 997-1003. (Pubitemid 351533189)
66. Pignone MP, Gaynes BN, Rushton JL, Burchell CM, Orleans CT, Mulrow CD, et al. Screening for depression in adults: a summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventative Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2002;136:765-76. (Pubitemid 34525677)
67. Georgiopoulos A, Bryan T, Wollan P, Yawn B. Routine screening for postpartum depression. J Fam Pract 2001;50: 117-22. (Pubitemid 32147972)
68. Yonkers KA, Smith MV, Lin H, Howell HB, Shao L, Rosenheck RA. Depression screening of perinatal women: an evaluation of the healthy start depression initiative. Psychiatr Serv 2009;60:322-8.
69. Screening for depression during and after pregnancy. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 453. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:394-5.
70. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med 2001;16:606-13. (Pubitemid 32823891)
71. Cox JL, Holden JM, Sagovsky R. Detection of postnatal depression. Development of the 10-item Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:782-6. (Pubitemid 17082036)
72. Dennis CL, Chung-Lee L. Postpartum depression help-seeking barriers and maternal treatment preferences: a qualitative systematic review. Birth 2006;33:323-31. (Pubitemid 44786325)
73. Morrell CJ, Slade P, Warner R, Paley G, Dixon S, Walters SJ, et al. Clinical effectiveness of health visitor training in psychologically informed approaches for depression in postnatal women: pragmatic cluster randomised trial in primary care. BMJ 2009;338:a3045.
74. Dennis C. Psychosocial and psychological interventions for prevention of postnatal depression: A systematic review. BMJ 2005;331:15.
75. Dennis CL, Hodnett E, Kenton L, Weston J, Zupancic J, Stewart DE, et al. Effect of peer support on prevention of postnatal depression among high risk women: multisite randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2009;338:a3064.
76. Brugha TS, Wheatley S, Taub NA, Culverwell A, Friedman T, Kirwan P, et al. Pragmatic randomized trial of antenatal intervention to prevent post-natal depression by reducing psychosocial risk factors. Psychol Med 2000;30:1273-81.
77. Reid M, Glazener C, Murray GD, Taylor GS. A two-centred pragmatic randomised controlled trial of two interventions of postnatal support. Bjog-an International J Obstet Gynaecol 2002;109:1164-70. (Pubitemid 35287088)
78. Morgan M, Matthey S, Barnett B, Richardson C. A group programme for postnatally distressed women and their partners. J Adv Nurs 1997;26:913-20. (Pubitemid 127454746)
79. Honey KL, Bennett P, Morgan M. A brief psycho-educational group intervention for postnatal depression. Br J Clin Psychol 2002;41:405-9. (Pubitemid 35439331)
80. Misri S, Kostaras X, Fox D, Kostaras D. The impact of partner support in the treatment of postpartum depression. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry-Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie 2000;45:554-8.
81. Ngai FW, Chan SW, Ip WY. The effects of a childbirth psychoeducation program on learned resourcefulness, maternal role competence and perinatal depression: a quasi-experiment. Int J Nurs Stud 2009;46:1298-306.
82. Lavender T, Walkinshaw SA. Can midwives reduce postpartum psychological morbidity? A randomized trial. Birth 1998; 25:215-9. (Pubitemid 128348664)
83. Small R, Lumley J, Donohue L, Potter A, Waldenström U. Randomised controlled trial of midwife led debriefing to reduce maternal depression after operative childbirth. BMJ 2000;321:1043-7.
84. Priest SR, Henderson J, Evans SF, Hagan R. Stress debriefing after childbirth: a randomised controlled trial. Med J Aust 2003;178:542-5. (Pubitemid 36705706)
85. Holden JM, Sagovsky R, Cox JL. Counselling in a general practice setting: controlled study of health visitor intervention in treatment of postnatal depression. BMJ 1989;298:223-6. (Pubitemid 19045135)
86. Wickberg B, Hwang CP. Counselling of postnatal depression: a controlled study on a population based Swedish sample. J Affect Disord 1996;39:209-16. (Pubitemid 26294988)
87. Stuart S, O'Hara MW. Treatment of postpartum depression with interpersonal psychotherapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995; 52:75-6.
88. Spinelli MG. Interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed antepartum women: a pilot study. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154: 1028-30. (Pubitemid 27274552)
89. Klier CM, Muzik M, Rosenblum K, Lenz G. Interpersonal psychotherapy adapted for the group setting in the treatment of postpartum depression: A pilot study. Infant Mental Health J 2000;21:381.
90. Zlotnick C, Miller IW, Pearlstein T, Howard M, Sweeney P. A preventive intervention for pregnant women on public assistance at risk for postpartum depression. Am J Psychiatry 2006;163:1443-5. (Pubitemid 44464420)
91. Grote NK, Swartz HA, Geibel SL, Zuckoff A, Houck PR, Frank E. A randomized controlled trial of culturally relevant, brief interpersonal psychotherapy for perinatal depression. Psychiatr Serv 2009;60:313-21.
92. Meager I, Milgrom J. Group treatment for postpartum depression: a pilot study. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 1996;30: 852-60. (Pubitemid 27064841)
93. Appleby L, Warner R, Whitton A, Faragher B. A controlled study of fluoxetine and cognitive-behavioural counselling in the treatment of postnatal depression. BMJ 1997;314:932-6. (Pubitemid 27140217)
94. Chabrol H, Teissedre F, Saint-Jean M, Teisseyre N, Rogé B, Mullet E. Prevention and treatment of post-partum depression: a controlled randomized study on women at risk. Psychol Med 2002;32:1039-47.
95. Cho HJ, Kwon JH, Lee JJ. Antenatal cognitive-behavioral therapy for prevention of postpartum depression: a pilot study. Yonsei Med J 2008;49:553-62.
96. Cooper PJ, Murray L, Wilson A, Romaniuk H. Controlled trial of the short- and long-term effect of psychological treatment of post-partum depression. I. Impact on maternal mood. Br J Psychiatry 2003;182:412-9. (Pubitemid 36560977)
97. Mulcahy R, Reay RE, Wilkinson RB, Owen C. A randomised control trial for the effectiveness of group interpersonal psychotherapy for postnatal depression. Arch Womens Mental Health 2010;13:125-39.
98. O'Hara MW, Stuart S, Gorman LL, Wenzel A. Efficacy of interpersonal psychotherapy for postpartum depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000;57:1039-45.
99. Einarson A. Antidepressants and pregnancy: complexities of producing evidence-based information. CMAJ 2010;182: 1017-8.
100. Steer RA, Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Fischer RL. Self-reported depression and negative pregnancy outcomes. J Clin Epidemiol 1992;45:1093-9.
101. Oberlander TF, Warburton W, Misri S, Aghajanian J, Hertzman C. Neonatal outcomes after prenatal exposure to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor antidepressants and maternal depression using population-based linked health data. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006;63:898-906. (Pubitemid 44188483)
102. Suri R, Altshuler L, Hellemann G, Burt VK, Aquino A, Mintz J. Effects of antenatal depression and antidepressant treatment on gestational age at birth and risk of preterm birth. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1206-13. (Pubitemid 47292409)
103. Yonkers KA, Wisner KL, Stewart DE, Oberlander TF, Dell DL, Stotland N, et al. The management of depression during pregnancy: a report from the American Psychiatric Association and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:703-13.
104. Wisner KL, Perel JM, Wheeler SB. Tricyclic dose requirements across pregnancy. Am J Psychiatry 1993;150:1541-2. (Pubitemid 23289315)
105. O'Brien L, Baumer C, Thieme D, Sachs H, Koren G. Changes in antidepressant metabolism in pregnancy evidenced by metabolic ratios in hair: a novel approach. Forensic Sci Int 2010;196:93-6.
106. Greene MF. Teratogenicity of SSRIs-serious concern or much ado about little? N Engl J Med 2007;356:2732-3. (Pubitemid 47001045)
107. Einarson A, Choi J, Einarson T, Koren G. Incidence of major malformations in infants following antidepressant exposure in pregnancy: results of a large prospective cohort study. Can J Psychiatry 2009;54:242-6.
108. Yonkers KA, Wisner KL, Stewart DE, Oberlander TF, Dell DL, Stotland N, et al. The management of depression during pregnancy: a report from the American Psychiatric Association and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2009;31:403-13.
109. Chambers CD, Hernandez-Diaz S, Van Marter LJ, Werler MM, Louik C, Jones KL, et al. Selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors and risk of persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. N Engl J Med 2006;354:579-87. (Pubitemid 43209105)
110. Kä llén B, Olausson PO. Maternal use of selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors and persistent pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Safety 2008;17: 801-6.
111. Anderson EL, Reti IM. ECT in pregnancy: a review of the literature from 1941 to 2007. Psychosom Med 2009;71: 235-42.
112. Loo CK, McFarquhar TF, Mitchell PB. A review of the safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation as a clinical treatment for depression. International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology 2008;11:131-47.
113. Harrison-Hohner J, Coste S, Dorato V, Curet LB, McCarron D, Hatton D. Prenatal calcium supplementation and postpartum depression: an ancillary study to a randomized trial of calcium for prevention of preeclampsia. Arch Women Ment Health 2001;3:141-6. (Pubitemid 32268164)
114. Armstrong K, Edwards H. The effects of exercise and social support on mothers reporting depressive symptoms: a pilot randomized controlled trial. Int J Mental Health Nursing 2003;12:130-8.
115. Onozawa K, Glover V, Adams D, Modi N, Kumar RC. Infant massage improves mother-infant interaction for mothers with postnatal depression. J Affect Disord 2001;63:201-7. (Pubitemid 32200514)
116. Field T, Diego MA, Hernandez-Reif M, Schanberg S, Kuhn C. Massage therapy effects on depressed pregnant women. J Psychosom Obstet Gynecol 2004;25:115-22. (Pubitemid 40125513)
117. Oren DA, Wisner KL, Spinelli M, Epperson CN, Peindl KS, Terman JS, et al. An open trial of morning light therapy for treatment of antepartum depression. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159:666-9. (Pubitemid 34274954)
118. Epperson CN, Terman M, Terman JS, Hanusa BH, Oren DA, Peindl KS, et al. Randomized clinical trial of bright light therapy for antepartum depression: preliminary findings. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:421-5.
119. Freeman MP, Hibbeln JR, Wisner KL, Davis JM, Mischoulon D, Peet M, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids: evidence basis for treatment and future research. J Clin Psychiatry 2006;67: 1954-67. (Pubitemid 46048194)
120. Rees AM, Austin MP, Parker G. Role of omega-3 fatty acids as a treatment for depression in the perinatal period. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2005;39:274-80. (Pubitemid 40601667)
121. Borja-Hart NL, Marino J. Role of omega-3 fatty acids for prevention or treatment of perinatal depression. Pharmacotherapy 2010;30:210-6.
122. Stowe ZN, Owens MJ, Landry JC, Kilts CD, Ely T, Llewellyn A, et al. Sertraline and desmethylsertraline in human breast milk and nursing infants. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1255-60. (Pubitemid 27369177)
123. Stowe ZN, Cohen LS, Hostetter A, Ritchie JC, Owens MJ, Nemeroff CB. Paroxetine in human breast milk and nursing infants. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:185-9. (Pubitemid 30080896)
124. Lanza di Scalea T, Wisner KL. Antidepressant medication use during breastfeeding. Clin Obstet Gynecol 2009;52:483-97.
125. Weissman MM, Bland RC, Canino GJ, Faravelli C, Greenwald S, Hwu HG, et al. Cross-national epidemiology of major depression and bipolar disorder. JAMA 1996;276:293-9. (Pubitemid 26249533)
126. Sharma V, Khan M, Corpse C, Sharma P. Missed bipolarity and psychiatric comorbidity in women with postpartum depression. Bipolar Disord 2008;10:742-7.
127. Viguera AC, Nonacs R, Cohen LS, Tondo L, Murray A, Baldessarini RJ. Risk of recurrence of bipolar disorder in pregnant and nonpregnant women after discontinuing lithium maintenance. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157:179-84. (Pubitemid 30080895)
128. Yonkers KA, Wisner KL, Stowe Z, Leibenluft E, Cohen L, Miller L, et al. Management of bipolar disorder during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Am J Psychiatry 2004;161:608-20. (Pubitemid 38445503)
129. Viguera AC, Cohen LS, Bouffard S, Whitfield TH, Baldessarini RJ. Reproductive decisions by women with bipolar disorder after prepregnancy psychiatric consultation. Am J Psychiatry 2002;159:2102-4. (Pubitemid 35423874)
130. Harlow BL, Vitonis AF, Sparen P, Cnattingius S, Joffe H, Hultman CM. Incidence of hospitalization for postpartum psychotic and bipolar episodes in women with and without prior prepregnancy or prenatal psychiatric hospitalizations. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2007;64:42-8. (Pubitemid 46041737)
131. Akdeniz F, Vahip S, Pirildar S, Vahip I, Doganer I, Bulut I. Risk factors associated with childbearing-related episodes in women with bipolar disorder. Psychopathology 2003;36: 234-8. (Pubitemid 37323498)
132. Jones I, Craddock N. Familiality of the puerperal trigger in bipolar disorder: results of a family study. Am J Psychiatry 2001;158:913-7. (Pubitemid 32547621)
133. Reich T, Winokur G. Postpartum psychoses in patients with manic depressive disease. J Nerv Ment Dis 1970;151:60-8.
134. Newport DJ, Stowe ZN, Viguera AC, Calamaras MR, Juric S, Knight B, et al. Lamotrigine in bipolar disorder: efficacy during pregnancy. Bipolar Disord 2008;10:432-6. (Pubitemid 351522668)
135. Viguera AC, Whitfield T, Baldessarini RJ, Newport DJ, Stowe Z, Reminick A, et al. Risk of recurrence in women with bipolar disorder during pregnancy: prospective study of mood stabilizer discontinuation. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164: 1817-24. (Pubitemid 351739234)
136. Sit D, Rothschild AJ, Wisner KL. A review of postpartum psychosis. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2006;15:352-68. (Pubitemid 43891166)
137. Kendell RE, Chalmers JC, Platz C. Epidemiology of puerperal psychoses. Br J Psychiatry 1987;150:662-73. (Pubitemid 17061231)
138. Munk-Olsen T, Laursen TM, Mendelson T, Pedersen CB, Mors O, Mortensen PB. Risks and predictors of readmission for a mental disorder during the postpartum period. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009;66:189-95.
139. Marks MN, Wieck A, Checkley SA, Kumar R. Contribution of psychological and social factors to psychotic and nonpsychotic relapse after childbirth in women with previous histories of affective disorder. J Affect Disord 1992;24: 253-63.
140. Valdimarsdottir U, Hultman CM, Harlow B, Cnattingius S, Sparen P. Psychotic illness in first-time mothers with no previous psychiatric hospitalizations: A population-based study. PLoS Med 2009;6:e1000013.
141. Vinogradov S, Csernansky JG. Postpartum psychosis with abnormal movements: dopamine supersensitivity unmasked by withdrawal of endogenous estrogens? J Clin Psychiatry 1990;51:365-6. (Pubitemid 20370457)
142. Kumar R, Marks M, Wieck A, Hirst D, Campbell I, Checkley S. Neuroendocrine and psychosocial mechanisms in postpartum psychosis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1993;17:571-9. (Pubitemid 23192598)
143. Meakin CJ, Brockington IF, Lynch S, Jones SR. Dopamine supersensitivity and hormonal status in puerperal psychosis. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1995;166:73-9.
144. Sharma V, Mazmanian D. Sleep loss and postpartum psychosis. Bipolar Disord 2003;5:98-105. (Pubitemid 36665391)
145. Hlastala SA, Frank E. Adapting interpersonal and social rhythm therapy to the developmental needs of adolescents with bipolar disorder. Dev Psychopathol 2006;18:1267-88. (Pubitemid 46389738)
146. Sharma V, Smith A, Khan M. The relationship between duration of labour, time of delivery, and puerperal psychosis. J Affect Disord 2004;83:215-20. (Pubitemid 39536197)
147. Payne JL, MacKinnon DF, Mondimore FM, McInnis MG, Schweizer B, Zamoiski RB, et al. Familial aggregation of postpartum mood symptoms in bipolar disorder pedigrees. Bipolar Disord 2008;10:38-44.
148. Jones I, Hamshere M, Nangle JM, Bennett P, Green E, Heron J, et al. Bipolar affective puerperal psychosis: genome-wide significant evidence for linkage to chromosome 16. Am J Psychiatry 2007;164:1099-104. (Pubitemid 47121399)
149. Cox JL, Connor Y, Kendell RE. Prospective study of the psychiatric disorders of childbirth. Br J Psychiatry 1982;140: 111-7. (Pubitemid 12212565)
150. Hirschfeld RM, Williams JB, Spitzer RL, Calabrese JR, Flynn L, Keck PE Jr, et al. Development and validation of a screening instrument for bipolar spectrum disorder: the Mood Disorder Questionnaire. Am J Psychiatry 2000;157: 1873-5.
151. Hirschfield R, Bowden CL, Gitlin MJ, Keck PE, Suppes T, Thase ME, et al. American Psychiatric Association practice guideline for the treatment of patients with bipolar disorder. 2nd ed. Arlington (VA): American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2002.
152. Frank E, Kupfer D, Ehlers C, Monk T, Cornes C, Carter S. Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy for bipolar disorder: integrating interpersonal and behavioral approaches. Behavior Therapist 1994;17:143-9.
153. Stewart DE, Robinson GE. Psychotropic drugs and electroconvulsive therapy during pregnancy and lactation. In: Stotland NL, Stewart DE, editors. Psychological aspects of Women's health care: The interface between psychiatry and obstetrics and gynecology. 2nd ed. Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 2001. pp. 67-94.
154. Meador KJ, Baker GA, Finnell RH, Kalayjian LA, Liporace JD, Loring DW, et al. In utero antiepileptic drug exposure: fetal death and malformations. Neurology 2006;67:407-12. (Pubitemid 44214962)
155. Einarson A, Boskovic R. Use and safety of antipsychotic drugs during pregnancy. J Psychiatr Pract 2009;15:183-92.
156. Cohen LS, Friedman JM, Jefferson JW, Johnson EM, Weiner ML. A reevaluation of risk of in utero exposure to lithium. J Am Med Assoc 1994;271:146-50. (Pubitemid 24020593)
157. Altshuler LL, Cohen L, Szuba MP, Burt VK, Gitlin M, Mintz J. Pharmacologic management of psychiatric illness during pregnancy: dilemmas and guidelines. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153:592-606. (Pubitemid 26133611)
158. Stewart DE, Klompenhouwer JL, Kendell RE, van Hulst AM. Prophylactic
159. Cohen LS, Sichel DA, Robertson LM, Heckscher E, Rosenbaum JF. Postpartum prophylaxis for women with bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1641-5.
160. Wisner KL, Hanusa BH, Peindl K, Perel J. Prevention of postpartum episodes in women with bipolar disorder Biol Psychiatry 2004;56:592-6. (Pubitemid 39336407)
161. Gentile S. Infant safety with antipsychotic therapy in breastfeeding: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry 2008;69: 666-73. (Pubitemid 351792344)
162. Eberhard-Gran M, Eskild A, Opjordsmoen S. Use of psychotropic medications in treating mood disorders during lactation: practical recommendations. CNS Drugs 2006;20: 187-98.
163. Gentile S. Prophylactic treatment of bipolar disorder in pregnancy and breastfeeding: focus on emerging mood stabilizers. Bipolar Disord 2006;8:207-20.
164. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Drugs. Use of psychoactive medication during pregnancy and possible effects on the fetus and newborn. Pediatrics 2000;105:880-7.