Toxicokinetics of mercury after long-term repeated exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccine

Toxicological Sciences

Volumn 120, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 499-506

  Barregard, Lars ^a   Rekić, Dinko ^a   Horvat, Milena ^b   Elmberg, Lisa ^a   Lundh, Thomas ^c   Zachrisson, Olof ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^b JO EF STEFAN INSTITUTE   (Slovenia)

^c LUND UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Ethyl mercury; Half life; Mercury; Methyl mercury; Thimerosal; Toxicokinetics

Indexed keywords

MERCURY; METHYLMERCURY; STAPHYLOCOCCUS TOXOID; STAPHYPAN BEMA; THIOMERSAL; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; BLOOD LEVEL; CHRONIC FATIGUE SYNDROME; CLINICAL ARTICLE; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; FEMALE; HALF LIFE TIME; HUMAN; LONG TERM EXPOSURE; METAL METABOLISM; TOXICOKINETICS;

FLU VACCINE; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; SUIDAE;

EID: 79953108477     PISSN: 10966080     EISSN: 10960929     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfr009     Document Type: Article

References (42)

1. Andersson, M., Bagby, J. R., Dyrehag, L.-E., and Gottfries, C.-G. (1998). Effects of staphylococcus toxoid vaccine on pain and fatigue patients with fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome. Eur. J. Pain. 2, 133-142.
2. Aschner, M., and Ceccatelli, S. (2010). Are neuropathological conditions relevant to ethylmercury toxicity exposure? Neurotox. Res. 18, 59-68.
3. Ball, L. K., Ball, R., and Pratt, R. D. (2001). An assessment of thimerosal use in childhood vaccines. Pediatrics 107, 1147-1154.
4. Barregard, L., Sallsten, G., Schütz, A., Attewell, R., Skerfving, S., and Järvholm, B. (1992). Kinetics of mercury in blood and urine after brief occupational exposure. Arch. Environ. Health 47, 176-184.
5. Berglund, M., Lind, B., Ask Bjornberg, K., Palm, B., Einarsson, O., and Vahter, M. (2005). Inter- individual variations of human mercury exposure biomarkers: a cross-sectional assessment. Environ. Health 4, 20.
6. Burbacher, T. M., Shen, D. D., Liberato, N., Grant, K. S., Cernichiari, E., and Clarkson, T. (2005). Comparison of blood and brain mercury levels in infant monkeys exposed to methyl mercury or vaccines containing thimerosal. Environ. Health Perspect. 113, 1015-1021.
7. Center for disease control and prevention. (CDC). (1999). Recommendations regarding the use of vaccines that contain thimerosal as a preservative. JAMA 282, 2114-2115.
8. Ciba-Geigy. (1984). Geigy Scientific Tables 1984, Vol. 3. Ciba-Geigy, Basel, Switzerland.
9. Clarkson, T. W. (2002). The three modern faces of mercury. Environ. Health Perspect. Rev. 110, 11-23.
10. Clarkson, T. W., Magos, L., and Myers, G. J. (2003). The toxicology of mercury-current exposures and clinical manifestations. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 1731-1737.
11. Clements, J. C. (2004). The evidence for the safety of thimerosal in newborn and infant vaccines. Vaccine 22, 1854-1861.
12. Geier, D. A., Sykes, L. K., and Geier, M. R. (2007). A review of thimerosal (merthiolat) and its ethylmercury breakdown product: specific historical considerations regarding safety and effectiveness. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health B Crit. Rev. 10, 575-596.
13. Geier, M. R., and Geier, D. A. (2003). Thimerosal in childhood vaccines, neurodevelopmental disorders, and heart disease in the United States. J. Am. Phys. Surg. 8, 6-11.
14. Gibicar, D., Logar, M., Horvat, N., Marn-Pernat, A., and Ponikvar, R. (2007). Simultaneous determination of trace levels of ethylmercury and methylmercury in biological samples and vaccines using sodium tetra(n-propyl) borate as derivatizing agent. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 388, 329-340.
15. Hertz-Picciotto, I., Green, P. G., Delwiche, L., Hansen, R., Walker, C., and Pessah, I. N. (2010). Blood mercury concentrations in CHARGE study children with and without autism. Environ. Health Perspect. 118, 161-166.
16. Horvat, M. (1991). Determination of methylmercury in biological certified reference materials. Water Air Soil Poll. 56, 95-102.
17. Hviid, A., Stellfed, M., Wohlfhart, J., and Melbye, M. (2003). Association between thimerosal-containing vaccine and autism. JAMA 290, 1763-1767.
18. Institute of Medicine. (IOM). (2001). Immunization Safety Review. Thimerosal-Containing Vaccines and Developmental Disorders. National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
19. Institute of Medicine. (IOM). (2004). Immunization Safety Review. Vaccines and Autism. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
20. Jonsson, E. N., and Karlsson, M. O. (1999). Xpose-an S-PLUS based population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model building aid for NONMEM. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 58, 51-64.
21. Kim, N.-S., and Lee, B.-K. (2010). Blood total mercury and fish consumption in the Korean general population in KNHANES III, 2005. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 4841-4847.
22. Lindbom, L., Pihlgren, P., and Jonsson, E. N. (2005). PsN-Toolkit-a collection of computer intensive statistical methods for non-linear mixed effect modeling using NONMEM. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 79, 241-257.
23. Magos, L. (2003). Neurotoxic character of thimerosal and the allometric extrapolation of adult clearance half-time to infants. J. Appl. Toxicol. 23, 263-269.
24. Mahaffey, K. R., Clickner, R. P., and Bodurow, C. C. (2004). Blood organic mercury and dietary mercury intake: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999 and 2000. Environ. Health Perspect. 112, 562-570.
25. Mahaffey, K. R., Clickner, R. P., and Jeffries, R. A. (2009). Adult women's blood mercury concentrations vary regionally in the United States: association with patterns of fish consumption (NHANES 1999-2004). Environ. Health Perspect. 117, 47-53.
26. Nierenberg, D. W., Nordgren, R. E., Chang, M. B., Siegler, R. W., Blayney, M. B., Hochberg, F., Toribara, T. Y., Cernichiari, E., and Clarkson, T. (1998). Delayed cerebellar disease and death after accidental exposure to dimethylmercury. N. Engl. J. Med. 338, 1672-1676.
27. Pichichero, M. E., Cernichiari, E., Lopreiato, J., and Treanor, J. (2002). Mercury concentrations and metabolism in infants receiving vaccines containing thimerosal: a descriptive study. Lancet 360, 1737-1741.
28. Pichichero, M. E., Gentile, A., Giglio, N., Alonso, M. M., Fernandez Mentaberri, M. V., Zareba, G., Clarkson, T., Gotelli, C., Gotelli, M., Yan, L., et al. (2009). Mercury levels in premature and low birth weight newborn infants after receipt of thimerosal-containing vaccines. J. Pediatr. 155, 495-499.
29. Pichichero, M. E., Gentile, A., Giglio, N., Umido, V., Clarkson, T., Cernichiari, E., Zareba, G., Gotelli, C., Gotelli, M., Yan, L., et al. (2008). Mercury levels in newborns and infants after receipt of thimerosalcontaining vaccines. J. Pediatr. 121, e208-e214.
30. Richer, J. F., Murray, H. E., and Prince, G. R. (2002). Organic mercury compounds: human exposure and its relevance to public health. Toxicol. Ind. Health 18, 109-160.
31. Sallsten, G., Barregard, L., and Schütz, A. (1993). Decrease in mercury concentration in blood after long term exposure: a kinetic study of chloralkali workers. Br. J. Ind. Med. 50, 814-821.
32. Sandborgh-Englund, G., Bjorkhem, L., Bjorkman, L., and Valtersson, C. (1998a). Determination of low levels of total mercury in blood and plasma by cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectrometry. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 58, 155-160.
33. Sandborgh-Englund, G., Elinder, C. G., Johansson, G., Lind, B., Skare, I., and Ekstrand, J. (1998b). The absorption, blood levels, ands excretion of mercury after a single dose of mercury vapour in humans. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 150, 146-153.
34. Stehr-Green, P., Tull, P., Stellfeld, M., and Mortenson, P.-B. (2003). Autism and thimerosal-containing vaccines: lack of consistent evidence for an association. Am. J. Prev. Med. 25, 101-106.
35. Thompson, W. W., Price, C., Goodson, B., Shay, D. K., Benson, P., Hinrichsen, V. L., Lewis, E., Eriksen, E., Ray, P., Marcy, S. M., et al. (2007). Early thimerosal exposure and neuropsychological outcomes at 7 to 10 years. N. Engl. J. Med. 357, 1281-1292.
36. Tozzi, A. E., Bisiacchi, P., Tarantino, V., De Mei, B., D'Elia, L., Chiarotti, F., and Salmaso, S. (2009). Neuropsychological performance 10 years after immunization in infancy with thimerosal-containing vaccines. Pediatrics 123, 475-482.
37. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (U.S. FDA). (2009). Thimerosal in Vaccines Available at: http://www.fda.gov/BiologicsBloodVaccines/SafetyAvailability/VaccineSafety/UCM096228. Accessed October 7, 2010.
38. Verstraeten, T., Davis, R. L., DeStefano, F., Lieu, T. A., Rhodes, P. H., Black, S. B., Shinefield, H., Chen, R. T. and Vaccine Safety Datalink Team. (2003). Safety of thimerosal-containing vaccines: a two-phased study of computerized health maintenance organization databases. Pediatrics 112, 1039-1048.
39. Wilkins, J. J. (2005). NONMEMory: a run management tool for NONMEM. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 78, 259-267.
40. World Health Organization. (WHO). (1990). Environmental Health Criteria 101. Methylmercury. International Programme on Chemical Safety. World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
41. World Health Organization. (WHO). (1991). Environmental Health Criteria 118. Inorganic mercury. International Programme on Chemical Safety. World Health Organisation, Geneva, Switzerland.
42. Zachrisson, O., Regland, B., Jahreskog, M., Jonsson, M., Kron, M., and Gottfries, C. G. (2002). Treatment with staphylococcus toxoid in fibromyalgia/chronic fatigue syndrome-a randomised controlled trial. Eur. J. Pain 6, 455-466.