Advancing environmental toxicology through chemical dosimetry: External exposures versus tissue residues

Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 7-27

  McCarty, L S ^a   Landrum, P F ^b   Luoma, S N ^c   Meador, J P ^d   Merten, A A ^e   Shephard, B K ^f   van Wezel, A P ^g  

^a Scientific Research and Consulting Newmarket   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA   (United States)

^c U S GEOLOGICAL SURVEY   (United States)

^d NORTHWEST FISHERIES SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^e Coastal Response Research Center ^*  (United States)

^f U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^g KWR WATERCYCLE RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Dose response; Review; Risk Dosimetry; Tissue residue; Toxicity

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; DOSE RESPONSE; ECOTOXICOLOGY; POLLUTANT; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

ANIMALS; DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP, DRUG; ECOTOXICOLOGY; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; RISK ASSESSMENT; TISSUE DISTRIBUTION;

EID: 79952456802     PISSN: 15513793     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/ieam.98     Document Type: Article

References (151)

1. Adams WJ, Blust RJP, Borgmann U, Brix KV, DeForest DK, Green A, Meyer JS, McGeer JC, Paquin PR, Rainbow PS, Wood CM. 2011. Utility of tissue residues for predicting effects of metals on aquatic organisms. Integr Environ Assess Manag 7:75-98.
2. Amiard JC, Amiard-Triquet C, Barka S, Pellerin SJ, Rainbow PS. 2006. Metallothioneins in aquatic invertebrates: Their role in metal detoxification and their use as biomarkers. Aquat Toxicol 76:120-160.
3. Andersen M, Clewell H III, Krishnan K. 1995. Tissue dosimetry, pharmacokinetic modelling, and interspecies scaling factors. Risk Anal 15:533-538.
4. Ankley GT, Di Toro DM, Hansen DJ, Berry WJ. 1996. Technical basis and proposal for deriving sediment quality criteria for metals. Environ Toxicol Chem 15:2056- 2066.
5. Ashauer R, Boxall A, Brown C. 2006. Predicting effects on aquatic organisms from fluctuating or pulsed exposure to pesticides. Environ Toxicol Chem 25:1899- 1912.
6. Ashauer R, Boxall A, Brown C. 2007. New ecotoxicological model to simulate survival of aquatic invertebrates after exposure to fluctuating and sequential pulses of pesticides. Environ Sci Tech 41:1480-1486.
7. [ASTM] American Society for Testing and Materials. 2001. E-2122. Standard guide for conducting in-situ field bioassays with marine, estuarine and freshwater bivalves. In: 20001 Annual book of ASTM standards. Conshohocken (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials. p 1546-1575.
8. [ASTM] American Society for Testing and Materials. 2003. Standard practice for conducting acute toxicity tests with fishes, macroinvertebrates, and amphibians. ASTM Designation E 729-96. In: ASTM, 2003. Annual book of standards. Section 11. Water and environmental technology. Philadelphia (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials. p 125-156.
9. Barron MG, Hansen JA, Lipton J. 2002. Association between contaminant tissue residues and effects in aquatic organisms. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 173:1-37.
10. Black DE, Gutjahr-Gobell R, Pruell RJ, Bergen B, McElroy AE. 1998. Effects of a mixture of non-ortho- and mono-ortho-polychlorinated biphenyls on reproduction in Fundulus heteroclitus (Linnaeus). Environ Toxicol Chem 17:1396-1404.
11. Blaise C, Gagné F, Salazar M, Salazar S, Trottier S, Hansen PD. 2003. Long-term exposure of freshwater mussels to a municipal effluent leads to feminization. Fresen Environ Bull 12:865-870.
12. Bobra A, ShiuWY, Mackay D. 1985. Quantitative structure-activity relationships for the acute toxicity of chlorobenzenes to Daphnia magna-review. Environ Toxicol Chem 4:297-306.
13. Borgmann U, Norwood WP, Babirad IM. 1991. Relationship between chronic toxicity and bioaccumulation of cadmium in Hyalella azteca. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 48:1055-1060.
14. Bridges TS, Lutz CH. 1999. Interpreting bioaccumulation data with the environmental residue-effects database. Dredging research technical note EEDP-04-30. Vicksburg (MS): US Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station.
15. Buchwalter DB, Cain DJ, Clements WH, Luoma SN. 2007. Using biodynamic models to reconcile differences between laboratory toxicity tests and field biomonitoring with aquatic insects. Environ Sci Technol 41:4821-4828.
16. Butcher J, Diamond J, Bearr J, Latimer H, Klaine SJ, Hoang T, Bowersox M. 2006. Toxicity models of pulsed copper exposure to Pimephales promelas and Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 25:2541-2550.
17. Cain DJ, Luoma SN, Wallace WG. 2004. Linking metal bioaccumulation of aquatic insects to their distribution patterns in a mining-impacted river. Environ Toxicol Chem 23:1463-1473.
18. Carpenter KE. 1927. The lethal action of soluble metallic salts on fishes. Br J Exp Biol 4:378-391.
19. [CCME] Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment. 1999. updated 2007. Canadian environmental quality guidelines update 7.0. Ottawa: Environment Canada.
20. Chaisuksant Y, Yu Q, Connell D. 1997. Internal lethal concentration of halobenzenes with fish (Gambusia affinis). Ecotoxicol Environ Safety 37:66-75.
21. Clements WH. 2000. Integrated effects of contaminants across levels of biological organization: An overview. J Aquat Ecosyst Stress Recov 7:113-116.
22. Connolly JP. 1985. Predicting single-species toxicity in natural water systems. Environ Toxicol Chem 4:573-582.
23. Cornelissen G, Rigterink H, ten Hulscher DEM, Vrind B, van Noort PCM. 2001. A simple Tenax extraction method to determine the availability of sedimentsorbed organic compounds. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:706-711.
24. Croteau MN, Luoma SN, Pellet B. 2007. Determining metal assimilation efficiency in aquatic invertebrates using enriched stable metal isotope tracers. Aquat Toxicol 83:116-125.
25. Di Toro DM, McGrath JA, Hansen DJ. 2000. Technical basis for narcotic chemicals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon criteria. I. Water and tissue. Environ Toxicol Chem 19:8: 1951-1970.
26. Di Toro DM, Allen HE, Bergman HL, Meyer JS, Paquin PR, Santore RC. 2001. Biotic ligand model of the acute toxicity of metals. I. Technical basis. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:2383-2396.
27. Dyer SD, Warne MStJ, Meyer JS, Leslie HA, Escher BI. 2011. The tissue residue approach for chemical mixtures. Integr Environ Assess Manag 7:99-115.
28. Eisler R, Gardner GR. 1973. Acute toxicology to an estuarine teleost of mixtures of cadmium, copper and zinc salts. J Fish Biol 5:131-142.
29. Escher BI, Hermens JLM. 2002. Modes of action in ecotoxicology: Their role in body burdens, species sensitivity, QSARs and mixture effects. Environ Sci Technol 36:4201-4217.
30. Escher BI, Hermens JLM. 2004. Internal exposure: Linking bioavailability to effects. Environ Sci Technol 455a-462a.
31. Escher BI, Ashauer R, Dyer SD, Hermens J, Lee J-H, Leslie HA, Mayer P, Meador JP, Warne MStJ. 2011. The crucial role of mechanisms and modes of toxic action for tissue residues of organic chemicals. Integr Environ Assess Manag 7:28-49.
32. Ferguson J. 1939. The use of chemical potentials as indices of toxicity. Proc Roy Soc London 127B:387-404.
33. Ferguson J, Pirie H. 1948. The toxicity of vapours to the grain weevil. Ann Appl Biol 35:532-550.
34. Franks NP, Lieb WR. 1982. Molecular mechanisms of general anaesthesia. Nature 300:487-493.
35. Franks NP, Lieb WR. 2004. Seeing the light-Protein theories of general anesthesia. Anesthesiology 101:235-237.
36. Friant SL, Henry L. 1985. Relationship between toxicity of certain organic compounds and their concentrations in tissues of aquatic organisms: A perspective. Chemosphere 14:1897-1907.
37. Geyer HJ, Scheunert I, Rapp K, Gebefugi I, Steinberg C, Kettrup A. 1993a. The relevance of fat content in toxicity of lipophilic chemicals to terrestrial animals with special reference to dieldrin and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). Ecotox Environ Saf 26:45-60.
38. Geyer HJ, Scheunert I, Bruggemann R, Schutz W, Kettrup A, Rozman K. 1993b. A review of the relationship between acute toxicity (LC50) of gammahexachlorocyclohexane (HCH, Lindane) and total lipid content of different fish species. Toxicology 83:169-172.
39. Gobas FAPC, Mackay D. 1987. Dynamics of hydrophobic organic chemical bioconcentration in fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 6:495-504.
40. Grosell M, Nielsen C, Bianchini A. 2002. Sodium turnover rate determines sensitivity to acute copper and silver exposure in freshwater animals. Comp Biochem Physiol Part C 133:287-303.
41. Grout JA, Levings CD. 2001. Effects of acid mine drainage from an abandoned coppermine BritanniaMines, Howe, Sound, B.C., on transplanted blue mussels (Mytilus edulis). Mar Environ Res 51:265-288.
42. Gutjahr-Gobell RE, Black DE, Mills LJ, Pruell RJ, Taplin BK, Jayaraman S. 1999. Feeding the mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) a diet spiked with non-orthoand mono-ortho-substituted polychlorinated biphenyls: Accumulation and effects. Environ Toxicol Chem 18:699-707.
43. Hendriks AJ, Heikens A. 2001. The power of size. 2. Rate constants and equilibrium ratios for accumulation of inorganic substances related to species weight. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:1421-1437.
44. Hendriks AJ, vander Linde A, Cornelissen G, Sijm DTHM. 2001. The power of size. 1. Rate constants and equilibrium ratios for accumulation of organic substances related to octanol-water partition ratio and species weight. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:1399-1420.
45. 50QSARs: Meta-analysis and model. Environ Sci Technol 39:3226-3236.
46. Hermens J, Konemann H, Leeuwangh P, Musch A. 1985. Quantitative structure-activity relationships in aquatic toxicity studies of chemicals and complex mixtures of chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 4:273-279.
47. Hook SE, Fisher NS. 2002. Relating the reproductive toxicity of five ingested metals in calanoid copepods with sulfur affinity. Mar Environ Res 53:161-174.
48. Hopkin SP. 1989. Ecophysiology of metals in terrestrial invertebrates. New York (NY): Elsevier Science. 354 p.
49. Hornberger MI, Luoma SN, Cain DJ, Parchaseo F, Brown CL, Bouse RM, Wellise C, Thompson JK. 2000. Linkage of bioaccumulation and biological effects to changes in pollutant loads in south San Francisco Bay. Environ Sci Technol 34:2401-2409.
50. Hwang H, Fisher SW, Landrum PF. 2001. Identifying body residues of HCBP associated with 10-d mortality and partial life cycle effects in the midge, Chironomus riparius. Aquat Toxicol 52:251-267.
51. Hwang H, Fisher SW, Kim K, Landrum PF, Larson RJ, Versteeg DJ. 2003. Assessing the toxicity of linear alkylbenzenesulfonate to the midge Chironomus riparius using body residues. Environ Toxicol Chem 22:302-312.
52. Hwang H, Fisher SW, Kim K, Landrum PF. 2004. Comparison of the toxicity using body residues of DDE and select PCB congeners to the midge, Chironomus riparius, in partial-life cycle tests. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 46:32-42.
53. Incardona JP, Collier TK, Scholz NL. 2004. Defects in cardiac function precede morphological abnormalities in fish embryos exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 196:191-205.
54. Jager T, Heugens EHW, Kooijman SALM. 2006. Making sense of ecotoxicological test results: Towards application of process-based models. Ecotoxicology 15:305-314.
55. Jarvinen AW, Ankley GT. 1999. Linkage of effects to tissue residues: Development of a comprehensive database for aquatic organisms exposed to inorganic and organic chemicals. Pensacola (FL): SETAC.
56. Johnson LL, Collier TK, Stein HE. 2002. An analysis in support of sediment quality thresholds for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to protect estuarine fish. Aquat Conserv Marine Freshwater Ecosystem 12:517-538.
57. Kenaga EE. 1982. Predictability of chronic toxicity from acute toxicity of chemicals in fish and aquatic invertebrates. Environ Toxicol Chem 1:347-358.
58. Kraaij RH, Ciarelli S, Tolls J, Kater BJ, Belfroid A. 2001. Bioavailability of labcontaminated and native polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the amphipod Corophium volutator relates to chemical desorption. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:1716-1724.
59. Landrum PF, Eadie BJ, Faust WR. 1991. Toxicity and toxicokinetics of a mixture of sediment-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the amphipod, Pontoporeia hoyi. Environ Toxicol Chem 10:35-46.
60. Landrum PF, Lee H, Lydy MJ. 1992. Toxicokinetics in aquatic systems: Model comparisons and use in hazard assessment. Environ Toxicol Chem 11:1709-1725.
61. Landrum PF, DupuisWS, Kukkonen J. 1994. Toxicokinetics and toxicity of sedimentassociated pyrene and phenanthrene in Diporeia spp.: Examination of equilibrium partitioning theory and residue based effects for assessing hazard. Environ Toxicol Chem 13:1769-1780.
62. Landrum P, Lotufo G, Gossiaux D, Gedeon M, Lee J-H. 2003. Bioaccumulation and critical body residue of PAHs in the amphipod Diporeia spp.: Additional evidence to support toxicity additivity for PAH mixtures. Chemosphere 51:481-489.
63. Landrum PF, Gossiaux DC, McElroy M, Robinson S, Chernyak S, Begnoche L, Hickey J, Steevens JA. 2004. Time-dependent lethal body residues for the toxicity of pentachlorobenzene to Hyalella azteca. Environ Toxicol Chem 23:1335-1343.
64. Landrum PF, Steevens JA, McElroy M, Gossiaux DC, Lewis JS, Robinson SD. 2005. Time-dependent toxicity of DDE to Hyalella azteca. Environ Toxicol Chem 24:211-218.
65. Landrum PF, Robinson SD, Gossiaux DD, You J, Lydy MJ, Mitra S, Ten Hulscher TEM. 2007. Predicting bioavailability of sediment-associated organic contaminants for Diporeia spp. and oligochaetes. Environ Sci Technol 41:6442-6447.
66. Lassiter RR. 1986. Design criteria for a predictive ecological effects modelling system. In: Poston TM, Purdy R, editors. Aquatic toxicology and environmental fate: Ninth symposium. Philadelphia (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials. STP 921. p 42-54.
67. Lee J-H, Landrum PF. 2006a. Development of a multi-component damage assessment model (MDAM) for time-dependent mixture toxicity with toxicokinetic interactions. Environ Sci Technol 40:1341-1349.
68. Lee J-H, Landrum PF. 2006b. Application of a multi-component damage assessment model (MDAM) for the toxicity of metabolized PAH in Hyalella azteca. Environ Sci Technol 40:1350-1357.
69. Lee J-H, Landrum PF, Koh C-H. 2002a. Prediction of time-dependent PAH toxicity in Hyalella azteca using a damage assessment model. Environ Sci Technol 36:3131-3138.
70. Lee J-H, Landrum PF, Koh C-H. 2002b. Toxicokinetics and time-dependent PAH toxicity in the amphipod, Hyalella azteca. Environ Sci Technol 36:3124-3130.
71. Leslie HA, Oosthoek AJP, Busser FJM, Kraak MHF, Hermens JLM. 2002. Biomimetic solid-phase microextraction to predict body residue and toxicity of chemicals that act by narcosis. Environ Toxicol Chem 21:229-234.
72. Lien GJ, McKim JM, Hoffman AD, Jenson CT. 2001. A physiologically based toxicokinetic model for lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush). Aquat Toxicol 51:335-350.
73. Lipnick RL. 1995. Structure-activity relationships. In: Rand GM, editor. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology. II. Effects, environmental fate, and risk assessment. Bristol (PA): Taylor & Francis. p 609-665.
74. Lotufo GR, Landrum PF, GedeonM, Tigue EA, Herche LR. 2000. Comparative toxicity and toxicokinetics of DDT, DDD, and DDE in freshwater amphipods. Environ Toxicol Chem 19:368-379.
75. Lotufo GR, Landrum PF, Gedeon ML. 2001. Toxicity and bioaccumulation of DDT in freshwater amphipods in exposures to spiked sediments. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:810-825.
76. Luoma SN, Rainbow PS. 2005. Why is metal bioaccumulation so variable? Biodynamics as a unifying concept. Environ Sci Technol 39:1921-1931.
77. Luoma S, Rainbow PS. 2008. Metal contamination in aquatic environments. Science and lateral management. New York (NY): Cambridge University Press. 608 p.
78. Mackay D. 2001. Multimedia environmental models: The fugacity approach. Boca Raton (FL): Lewis. 272 p.
79. Mackay D, McCarty LS, MacLeod M. 2001. On the validity of classifying chemicals for persistence, bioaccumulation, toxicity, and potential for long-range transport. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:1491-1498.
80. Matta MB, Linse J, Cairncross C, Francendese L, Kocan RM. 2001. Reproductive and transgenerational effects of methylmercury or Aroclor 1268 on Fundulus heteroclitus. Environ Toxicol Chem 20:327-335.
81. McCarty LS. 1986. The relationship between aquatic toxicity QSARS and bioconcentration for some organic chemicals. Environ Toxicol Chem 5:1071-1080.
82. McCarty LS. 1987a. Relationship between toxicity and bioconcentration for some organic chemicals. I. Examination of the relationship. In: Kaiser KLE, editor. QSAR in environmental toxicology. II. Dordrecht (Netherlands): Reidel. p 207-220.
83. McCarty LS. 1987b. Relationship between toxicity and bioconcentration for some organic chemicals. II. Application of the relationship. In: Kaiser KLE, editor. QSAR in environmental toxicology. II. Dordrecht (Netherlands): Reidel. p 221-230.
84. McCarty LS. 1991. Toxicant body residues: Implications for aquatic bioassays with some organic chemicals. In:Mayes MA, Barron MG, editors. Aquatic toxicology and risk assessment. Vol 14. Philadelphia (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials. STP 1124. p 183-192.
85. McCarty LS, Mackay D. 1993. Enhancing ecotoxicological modeling and assessment: Body residues and modes of toxic action. Environ Sci Technol 27:1719-1728.
86. McCarty LS, Borgert CJ. 2006a. Review of the toxicity of chemical mixtures: Theory, policy, and regulatory practice. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 45:119-143.
87. McCarty LS, Borgert CJ. 2006b. Review of the toxicity of mixtures containing at least one organochlorine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 45:104-118.
88. McCarty LS, Hodson PV, Craig GR, Kaiser KLE. 1985. The use of quantitative structure-activity relationships to predict the acute and chronic toxicity of organic chemicals to fish. Environ Toxicol Chem 4:595-606.
89. McCarty LS, Mackay D, Smith AD, Ozburn GW, Dixon DG. 1992. Residue-based interpretation of toxicity and bioconcentration QSARs from aquatic bioassays: Neutral narcotic organics. Environ Toxicol Chem 11:917-930.
90. McElroy AE, Barron MG, Beckvar N, Kane Driscoll SB,Meador JP, Parkerton TF, Preuss TG, Steevens J. 2011. Use of the tissue residue approach for organic and organometallic compounds. Integr Environ Assess Manag 7:50-74.
91. McGowan J. 1951. The physical toxicity of chemicals. I. Vapours. J Appl Chem 1:120-126.
92. McGowan J. 1952a. The physical toxicity of chemicals. II. Factors affecting physical toxicity in aqueous solutions. J Appl Chem 2:323-328.
93. McGowan J. 1952b. The physical toxicity of chemicals. III. A systematic treatment of physical toxicity in aqueous solutions. J Appl Chem 2:651-658.
94. McGowan JC, Mellors A. 1986. Molecular volumes in chemistry and biology: Applications including partitioning and toxicity. Chichester, UK: Ellis Horwood. 259 p.
95. Meador JP. 2000. Predicting the fate and effects of tributyltin in marine systems. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 166:1-48.
96. Meador JP. 2006. Rationale and procedures for using the tissue-residue approach for toxicity assessment and determination of tissue, water, and sediment quality guidelines for aquatic organisms. Hum Ecol Risk Assess 12:1018-1073.
97. Meador JP, Stein JE, Reichert WL, Varanasi U. 1995. Bioaccumulation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by marine organisms. Rev Environ Contam Toxicol 143:79-165.
98. Meador JP, Adams NG, Casillas E, Bolton JL. 1997. Comparative bioaccumulation of chlorinated hydrocarbons from sediment by two infaunal invertebrates. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 33:388-400.
99. Meador JP, Sommers FC, Ylitalo GM, Sloan CA. 2006. Altered growth and related physiological responses in juvenile Chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) from dietary exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Can J Fish Aquat Sci 63:2364-2376.
100. Meador JP, Buzitis J, Bravo C. 2008a. Using fluorescent aromatic compounds (FACs) in bile from juvenile salmonids to determine exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Environ Toxicol Chem 27:845-853.
101. Meador JP, McCarty LS, Escher BI, Adams WJ. 2008b. The tissue-residue approach for toxicity assessment: Concepts, issues, application, and recommendations. J Environ Monit 10:1486-1498.
102. Meador JP, Adams WJ, Escher BI, McCarty LS, McElroy AE, Sappington KG. 2011. The tissue residue approach for toxicity assessment: Findings and critical reviews from a Pellston workshop. Integr Environ Assess Manag 7:2-6.
103. Merten AA. 2005. Sublethal narcotic impacts of dietary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the bioenergetics of and polychlorinated biphenyl bioaccumulation in Fundulus heteroclitus.[PhD dissertation]. University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
104. Meyer JN, Nacci DE, Di Giulio RT. 2002. Cytochrome P4501A (CYP1A) in killifish (Fundulus heterclitus): Heritability of altered expression and relationship to survival in contaminated sediments. Toxicol Sci 68:69-81.
105. Meyer JS, Boese CJ, Collyard SA. 2002. Whole-body accumulation of copper predicts acute toxicity to an aquatic oligochaete (Lumbriculus variegatus) as pH and calcium are varied. Comp Biochem Physiol Part C 133:99-109.
106. Meyer JS, Clearwater SJ, Doser TA, Rogaczewski MJ, Hansen JA. 2007. Effects of water chemistry on the bioavailability and toxicity of waterborne cadmium, copper, nickel, lead, and zinc to freshwater organisms. Pensacola (FL): SETAC.
107. Meyer JS, Boese CJ, Morris JM. 2007. Use of the biotic ligand model to predict pulse-exposure toxicity of copper to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas). Aquat Toxicol 84:268-278.
108. Meyers MS, Johnson LL, Collier TK. 2003. Establishing the causal relationship between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and hepatic neoplasms and neoplasia-related liver lesions in English Sole (Pleuronectes vetulus). Hum Ecol Risk Assess 9:67-94.
109. Mullins LJ. 1954. Some physical mechanisms in narcosis. Chem Rev 54:289-323.
110. Munns WR Jr, Black DE, Gleason TE, Salomon K, Bengtson D, Gutjhar-Gobell R. 1997. Evaluation of the effects of dioxin and PCBs on Fundulus heteroclitus populations using a modeling approach. Environ Toxicol Chem 16:1074-1081.
111. Newman MC, McCloskey JT. 1996. Time-to-event analyses of ecotoxicity data. Ecotoxicology 5:187-196.
112. Phillips DJH, Rainbow PS. 1994. Biomonitoring of trace aquatic contaminants. 2nd ed. London: Chapman & Hall. 388 p.
113. Rand GM, Wells PG, McCarty LS. 1995. Introduction to aquatic toxicology. In: Rand GM, editor. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology. II. Effects, environmental fate, and risk assessment. Bristol (PA): Taylor & Francis. p 3-67.
114. Roesijadi G. 1992. G. 1992. Metallothioneins in metal regulation and toxicity in aquatic animals. Aquat Toxicol 22:81-114.
115. Russell D. 2003. Evaluation of the Clean Water Act Section 304(a) human health criterion for methylmercury: Protectiveness for threatened and endangered wildlife in California. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Sacramento Fish and Wildlife Office, Environmental Contaminants Division. Sacramento, CA. 96 p+ appendix.
116. Russom CL, Bradbury SP, Broderius SJ, Hammermeister DE, Drummond RA. 1997. Predicting modes of toxic action from chemical structure: Acute toxicity in the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Environ Toxicol Chem 16:948-967.
117. Salazar MH, Salazar SM. 1991. Assessing site-specific effects of TBT contamination with mussel growth rates. Mar Environ Res 32:131-150.
118. Salazar MH, Salazar SM. 1995. In situ bioassays using transplanted mussels. I. Estimating chemical exposure and bioeffects with bioaccumulation and Growth. In: Hughes JS, Biddinger GR, Mones E, editors. Environmental toxicology and risk assessment. Vol 3. Philadelphia (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials STP 1218. p 216-241.
119. Salazar MH, Salazar SM. 1996. Mussels as bioindicators: Effects of TBT on survival, bioaccumulation and growth under natural conditions. In: Champ MA, Seligman PF, editors. Tributyltin: Environmental fate and effects. London: Chapman & Hall. p 305-330.
120. Salazar MH, Salazar SM. 1998. Using caged bivalves as part of an exposure-doseresponse triad to support an integrated risk assessment strategy. In: de Peyster A, Day K, editors. Proceedings, ecological risk assessment: A meeting of policy and science. SETAC Special Publication. Pensacola (FL): SETAC. p 167-192.
121. Salazar MH, Salazar SM. 2007. Linking bioaccumulation and biological effects to chemicals in water and sediment: A conceptual framework for freshwater bivalve ecotoxicology. In: Vanhassel J, Farris J, editors. Freshwater mussel ecotoxicology. Pensacola (FL): SETAC. p 215-255.
122. Sappington KG, Bridges TS, Bradbury SP, Erickson RJ, Hendriks AJ, Lanno RP, Meador JP, Mount DR, Salazar MH, Spry DJ. 2011. Application of the tissue residue approach in ecological risk assessment. Integr Environ Assess Manag 7:116-140.
123. Schuler LJ, Landrum PF, Lydy MJ. 2004. Time-dependent toxicity of fluoranthene to freshwater invertebrates and the role of biotransformation on lethal body residues. Environ Sci Technol 38:6247-6254.
124. Schuler LJ, Landrum PF, Lydy MJ. 2006. Comparative toxicity of fluoranthene and pentachlorobenzene to three freshwater invertebrates. Environ Toxicol Chem 25:985-994.
125. Schuler LJ, Landrum PF, Lydy MJ. 2007a. Response spectrum for fluoranthene and pentachlorobenzene for the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas). Environ Toxicol Chem 26:139-148.
126. Schuler LJ, Landrum PF, Lydy MJ. 2007b. Response spectrum of pentachlorobenzene and fluoranthene for Chironomus tentans and Hyalella azteca. Environ Toxicol Chem 26:1248-1257.
127. Spacie A, McCarty LS, Rand GM. 1995. Bioaccumulation in multi-phase systems. In: Rand GM, editor. Fundamentals of aquatic toxicology. II. Effects, Environmental fate, and risk assessment. Bristol (PA): Taylor & Francis. p 493-521.
128. Sprague JB. 1969. Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. I. Bioassay methods for acute toxicity. Water Res 3:793-821.
129. Sprague JB. 1970. Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. II. Utilizing and applying bioassay results. Water Res 4:3-32.
130. Sprague JB. 1971. Measurement of pollutant toxicity to fish. III. Sublethal effects and safe concentrations. Water Res 5:245-266.
131. Sprague JB. 1973. The ABCs of pollutant bioassay with fish. In: Cairns J Jr, Dickson KL, editors. Biologicalmethods for the assessment of water quality. Philadelphia (PA): American Society for Testing and Materials, STP 528. p 6-30.
132. Spromberg JA, Meador JP. 2005. Relating results of chronic toxicity responses to population-level effects: Modeling effects on wild Chinook salmon populations. Integr Environ Assess Manag 1:9-21.
133. Spry DJ, Wiener JG. 1991. Metal bioavailability and toxicity to fish in low-alkalinity lakes: A critical review. Environ Pollut 71:243-304.
134. Steevens JA, Reiss MR, Pawlisz AV. 2005. A methodology for deriving tissue residue benchmarks for aquatic biota: A case study for fish exposed to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and equivalents. Integr Environ Assess Manag 1:142-151.
135. Stephan CE, Mount DI, Hansen DJ, Gentile JH, Chapman GA, Brungs WA. 1985. Guidelines for deriving numerical national water quality criteria for the protection of aquatic organisms and their uses. Springfield (VA): National Technical Information Services. NTIS PB 85-227049.
136. Traas TP, VanWezel AP, Hermens JLM, Zorn M, Van Hattum AGM, Van Leeuwen CJ. 2004. Environmental quality criteria for organic chemicals predicted from internal effect concentrations and a food web model. Environ Toxicol Chem 23:2518-2527.
137. [USEPA] US Environmental Protection Agency. 2008. PCBres PBC Residue Effects Database. [Accessed 2010 March 15]. Available from: http://www.epa.gov/ medProds_Pubs/pcbres.htm
138. Van der Oost R, Beyer J, Vermeulen NPE. 2003. Fish bioaccumulation and biomarkers in environmental risk assessment: A review. Environ Toxic Pharm 13:57-149.
139. Van Kirk RW, Hill SL. 2007. Demographic model predicts trout population response to selenium based on individual-level toxicity. Ecol Model 206:407-420.
140. Van Veld PA, Vogelbein K, Smolowitz R, Woodin BR, Stegeman JJ. 1992. Cytochrome P-450IA1 in hepatic lesions of teleost fish (Fundulus heteroclitus) collected from a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-contaminated site. Carcinogenesis 13:505-507.
141. Van Wezel AP, Opperhuizen A. 1995. Narcosis due to environmental pollutants in aquatic organisms: Residue-based toxicity, mechanisms, and membrane burdens. Crit Rev Toxicol 25:255-279.
142. Van Wezel AP, de Vries DAM, Kostense S, Sijm DTHM, Opperhuizen A. 1995. Intraspecies variation in lethal body burdens of narcotic compounds. Aquat Toxicol 33:325-342.
143. Vijver MG, Van Gestel CAM, Lanno RP, Van Straalen NM, PeijnenburgWJGM. 2004. Internal metal sequestration and its ecotoxicological relevance: A review. Environ Sci Technol 38:4705-4712.
144. Veith G, Call D, Brooke L. 1983. Structure-toxicity relationship for the fathead minnow Pimephales promelas: Narcotic industrial chemicals. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 40:743-748.
145. Wang W-X, Fisher NS. 1999. Delineating metal accumulation pathways for marine invertebrates. Sci Total Environ 237/238:459-472.
146. White GF, Thomas A. 1912. Studies on the absorption of metallic salts by fish in their natural habitat. I. Absorption of copper by Fundulus heteroclitus. J Biol Chem 11:381-386.
147. Winner RW, BoeselMW, Farrell MP. 1980. Insect community structure as an index of heavy-metal pollution in lotic ecosystems. Can J Fish Aquat Sci 37:647-655.
148. Xu T, Spurlock F, Wang Z, Gan J. 2007. Comparison of five methods for measuring sediment toxicity of hydrophobic contaminants. Environ Sci Toxicol 41:8394- 8399.
149. You J, Landrum PF, Lydy MJ. 2006. Comparison of chemical approaches for assessing bioavailability of sediment-associated contaminants. Environ Sci Tech 40:6348-6353.
150. Yu Q, Chaisuksant Y, Connell D. 1999. A model for non-specific toxicity with aquatic organisms over relatively long periods of exposure time. Chemosphere 38:909-918.
151. Zhao Y, Newman MC. 2004. Shortcomings of the laboratory-derived median lethal concentration for predicting mortality in field populations: Exposure duration and latent mortality. Environ Toxicol Chem 23:2147-2153.