Effect of contaminants on polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 292-329

  Zamel, Nada ^a   Li, Xianguo ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Anode; Cathode; Contamination; Electrolyte membrane; PEM fuel cells

Indexed keywords

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES; ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES; ATMOSPHERIC AIR; B-Y IONS; CHEMICAL KINETICS; ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE; ENERGY SECURITY; FUTURE DIRECTIONS; HYDROGEN OXIDATION; IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT; IMPURITIES IN; MITIGATION METHODS; OXYGEN REDUCTION; PEM FUEL CELL; POLYMER ELECTROLYTE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS; REFORMATES; RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT; RESEARCH TOPICS;

CATHODES; CHEMICAL STABILITY; CONTAMINATION; ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION; GAS FUEL PURIFICATION; HYDROGEN; IMPURITIES; OXIDANTS; OXYGEN; POLYELECTROLYTES; PROTON EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELLS (PEMFC); REACTION KINETICS;

MEMBRANES;

EID: 79952314737     PISSN: 03601285     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pecs.2010.06.003     Document Type: Review

References (327)

1. T. Ralph, G. Hards, J. Keating, S. Campbell, D. Wilkinson, and M. Davis Low cost electrodes for proton exchange membrane fuel cells: performing in single cells and Ballard stacks Journal of the Electrochemical Society 144 1997 3845 3857 (Pubitemid 127628732)
2. X. Cheng, Z. Shi, N. Glass, L. Zhang, J. Zhang, and D. Song A review of PEM hydrogen fuel cell contamination: Impacts, mechanisms and mitigation Journal of Power Sources 165 2007 739 756
3. A. Damjanovic, and V. Brusic Electrode kinetics of oxygen reduction on oxide free platinum electrodes Electrochimica Acta 12 1967 615 628
4. 2 dissolution at Pt on the conditions for adsorption of reaction Electrochimica Acta 15 1970 1281 1283
5. D.B. Sepa, M.V. Vojnovic, L.M. Vracar, and A. Damjanovic Different views regarding the kinetics and mechanisms of oxygen reduction at Pt and Pd electrodes Electrochimica Acta 32 1987 129 134 (Pubitemid 17528675)
6. E. Yeager, M. Razaq, D. Gervasio, A. Razaq, and D. Tryk D. Scherson, D. Tryk, M. Daroux, X. Xing, Structure effects in electrocatalysis and oxygen electrochemistry. Proceeding Volume 92-11 1992 The Electrochemical Society Inc. Pennington, NJ 440
7. J.K. Norskov, J. Rossmeisl, A. Logadottir, L. Lindqvist, J.R. Kitchin, and T. Bilgaard Origin of the overpotential for oxygen reduction at a fuel cell cathode Journal of Physical Chemistry B 108 2004 17,886 17,892
8. G.S. Karlberg, J. Rossmeisl, and J.K. Norskov Estimations of electric field effects on the oxygen reduction reaction based on the density functional theory Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 9 2007 5158 5161
9. 2 over a Pt catalyst via direct oxygen reduction Fuel Cell 6 2006 159 181 (Pubitemid 44327776)
10. S. Walch, A. Dhanda, M. Aryanpour, and H. Pitsch Mechanims of molecular oxygen reduction at the cathode of a PEM fuel cell: non-electrochemical reactions on catalytic Pt particles Journal of Physical Chemistry C 112 2008 8464 8475
11. Z. Shi, J. Zhang, Z.-S. Liu, H. Wang, and D.P. Wilkinson Current status of ab initio quantum chemistry study for oxygen electroreduction on fuel cell catalysts Electrochimica Acta 51 2006 1905 1916 (Pubitemid 43136708)
12. Z. Shi PEM fuel cell electrocatalysts and catalyst layer J. Zhang, Chapter 5: application of first principles methods in the study of fuel cell air cathode electrocatalysis 2008 Springer
13. R.A. Sidik, and A.B. Anderson Density functional theory study of O2 electroreduction when bonded to a Pt dual site Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 528 2002 69 76
14. A.B. Anderson, and T.V. Albu Catalytic effect of platinum on oxygen reduction: an ab initio model including electrode potential dependence Journal of the Electrochemical Society 147 2000 4229 4238 (Pubitemid 32025086)
15. ® Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 499 2001 85 94 (Pubitemid 32264183)
16. H. Kuhn, A. Wokaun, and G.G. Scherer Exploring single electrode reactions in polymer electrolyte fuel cells Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 2322 2327 (Pubitemid 46072822)
17. C.Y. Du, T.S. Zhao, and C. Xu Simultaneous oxygen reduction and methanol oxidation reactions at the cathode of a DMFC: A model based electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study Journal of Power Sources 167 2007 265 271 (Pubitemid 46584773)
18. 2 reduction Pt Electrochemical Communications 8 2006 1132 1136
19. J.M. Moore, P.L. Adcock, J.B. Lakeman, and G.O. Mepsted The effects of battlefield contaminants on PEMFC performance Journal of Power Sources 85 2000 254 260 (Pubitemid 30556672)
20. R. Mohtadi, W.-K. Lee, and J.W. van Zee Assessing durability of cathodes exposed to common air impurities Journal of Power Sources 138 2004 216 225 (Pubitemid 41325941)
21. D. Yang, J. Ma, L. Xu, M. Wu, and H. Wang The effect of nitrogen oxides in air on the performance of proton exchange membrane fuel cell Electrochimica Acta 51 2006 4039 4044 (Pubitemid 44275068)
22. F. Jing, M. Hou, W. Shi, J. Fu, H. Yu, and P. Ming The effect of ambient contamination on PEMFC performance Journal of Power Sources 166 2007 172 176 (Pubitemid 46356833)
23. 2 Journal of the Electrochemical Society 155 2008 B315 320
24. Uribe F, Smith W, Wilson M, Valerio J, Rockward T, Garzon F, et al. Electrodes for polymer electrolyte membrane operation on hydrogen/air and reformate/air. Hydrogen, fuel cells and infrastructure technologies, Progress report; 2003. Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/ pdfs/ive12-uribe.pdf.
25. x trap catalysts Applied Catalysis B 20 1999 47 55 (Pubitemid 29032998)
26. 2 on Pt (110): formation of a new oxygen adsorption state Surface Science Letters 506 2002 L287 L292
27. W. Lewdorowicz, W. Tokarz, P. Piela, and P.K. Wrona Synthesis of hydroxylamine in the nitric oxide - hydrogen fuel cell Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems 9 2006 339 343 (Pubitemid 46405785)
28. W.J. Plieth A.J. Bard, Encyclopedia of electrochemistry of the elements vol. 8 1978 Marcel Dekker New York page 321
29. V. Rosca, G.L. Beltramo, and M.T.M. Koper Reduction of NO adlayers on Pt (110) and Pt (111) in acidic media: evidence for adsorption site specific reduction Langmuir 21 2005 1448 1456 (Pubitemid 40282484)
30. M. Gattrell, and B. MacDougall W. Vielstich, H. Gasteiger, A. Lamm, Electrocatalysis Handbook of fuel cells - fundamentals, technology and applications vol. 2 2003 John Wiley and Sons New York Chapter 30, p. 443
31. Y. Garsany, O.A. Baturina, J.J. Pietron, and K.E. Swider-Lyons Impact of sulfur dioxide on the performance of the PEMFC cathodes ECS Transactions 3 2006 685 694
32. Y. Garsany, O.A. Baturina, and K.E. Swider-Lyons Impact of sulfur dioxide on the oxygen reduction reaction at Pt/Vulcan carbon electrocatalysts Journal of the Electrochemical Society 154 2007 B670 B675
33. 3Co and Pt/Vulcan carbon electrocatalysts Journal of the Electrochemical Society 156 2009 B848 B855
34. D. Imamura, and Y. Hashimasa Effect of sulfur containing compounds on fuel cell performance ECS Transactions 11 2007 853 862
35. Borup R, Brosha E, Garzon F, Pivovar B, Rockward T, Springer T, et al. Effects of fuel and air impurities on PEM fuel cell performance. DOE hydrogen, fuel cells and infrastructure technologies 2007 kickoff meeting. Available from: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/new-fc-garzon-lanl.pdf.
36. Y. Zhai, G. Bender, S. Dorn, M. Angelo, K. Bethune, and R. Rocheleau Sulfur dioxide contamination in PEMFCs: degradation and recovery of performance ECS Transactions 16 2008 873 880
37. J. Fu, M. Hou, C. Du, Z. Shao, and B. Yi Potential dependence of sulfur dioxide poisoning and oxidation at the cathode of proton exchange membrane fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 187 2009 32 38
38. H. Jüntgen, and H. Kühl P.A. Thrower, Chemistry and physics of carbon vol. 22 1989 Marcel Dekker New York p. 145
39. Z. Qi, C. He, and A. Kaufman Effect of CO in the anode fuel on the performance of PEM fuel cell cathode Journal of Power Sources 111 2002 239 247 (173)
40. Z. Qi, C. He, and A. Kaufman Poisoning of proton exchange membrane fuel cell cathode by CO in the anode fuel Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 4 2001 A204 A205 (329)
41. ® PFSA membranes: N-112, NE-1135, N-115, N-117, NE-1110, perfluorosulfonic acid polymer. Available from: http://www.fuelcellmarkets.com/content/images/articles/ nae101.pdf (330).
42. Z. Shi, D. Song, H. Li, K. Fatih, Y. Tang, and J. Zhang A general model for air side proton exchange membrane fuel cell contamination Journal of Power Sources 186 2009 435 445
43. J. Newman, and K.E. Thomas-Alyea Electrochemical systems 2004 John Wiley and Sons p. 210
44. A.E. Weber, R.M. Darling, and J. Newman Modeling two phase behavior in PEFCs Journal of the Electrochemical Society 151 2004 A1715 A1727
45. 2 removal in the presence of oxygen Carbon 40 2002 1409 1417 (Pubitemid 34623833)
46. 2 on activated carbon impregnated with KOH Carbon 41 2003 1881 1888
47. A. Claudino, J.L. Soares, R.F.P.M. Moreira, and H.J. José Adsorption equilibrium and breakthrough analysis for NO adsorption on activated carbons at low temperatures Carbon 42 2004 1483 1490
48. 2 on modified activated carbon sorbent from flue gases Energy Conversion and Management 46 2005 2173 2184
49. W. Klose, and S. Rincón Adsorption and reaction of NO on activated carbon in the presence of oxygen and water vapor Fuel 86 2007 203 209 (Pubitemid 46107105)
50. M.C. Bétournay, G. Bonner, E. Edwardson, D. Paktunc, A. Kaufman, and A.T. Lomma The effects of mine conditions on the performance of a PEM fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 134 2004 80 87 (Pubitemid 41326005)
51. D.M. Kennedy, D.R. Cahela, W.H. Zhu, K.C. Westrom, R.M. Nelms, and B.J. Tatarchuk Fuel cell cathode air filters: methodologies for design and optimization Journal of Power Sources 168 2007 391 399 (Pubitemid 46669854)
52. X. Ma, D. Yang, W. Zhou, C. Zhang, X. Pan, and L. Xu Evaluation of activated carbon adsorbent for fuel cell cathode air filtration Journal of Power Sources 175 2008 383 389 (Pubitemid 350151613)
53. A. Collier, H. Wang, X.Z. Yuan, J. Zhang, and D.P. Wilkinson Degradation of polymer electrolyte membranes International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 31 2006 1838 1854 (Pubitemid 44278419)
54. D. Schiraldi Perfluorinated polymer electrolyte membrane durability Polymer Reviews 46 2006 315 327 (Pubitemid 44155159)
55. D.E. Curtin, R.D. Lousenberg, T.J. Henry, P.C. Tangeman, and M.E. Tisack Advanced materials for improved PEMFC performance and life Journal of Power Sources 131 2004 41 48 (Pubitemid 41325844)
56. M. Pianca, E. Barchiesi, G. Esposto, and S. Radice End groups in fluoropolymers Journal of Fluorine Chemistry 95 1999 71 84
57. C.-X. Lin, M. Sekachev, Z. Hu, and D. Dareing A computational DFT analysis of OH chemisorption on catalytic Pt (111) nanoparticles Journal of Nanoparticle Research 2009
58. A. Panchenko DFT investigation of the polymer electrolyte membrane degradation caused by OH radicals in fuel cells Journal of Membrane Science 278 2006 269 278 (Pubitemid 43766650)
59. m with n = 1, 2, 3 and m ≤ n on Pt, Ir, Os, Pd, Rh and Ru Journal of American Chemical Society 122 2000 2309 2321 (Pubitemid 30164643)
60. 4 photodissociation on the Pt (111) surface Journal of Chemical Physics 107 1997 415 424 (Pubitemid 127564367)
61. K.A. Mauritz, and R.B. Moore State of understanding of Nafion Chemical Reviews 104 2004 4535 4586
62. A.B. LaConti, M. Hamdan, and R.C. McDonald Fuel cell technology and applications, mechanisms of membrane degradation Handbook of fuel cells - fundamentals, technology and applications vol. 3 2003 p. 648 (Chapter 49)
63. K. Hongsirikarn, J.G. Goodwin, S. Greenway, and S. Creager Influence of ammonia on the conductivity of Nafion membranes Journal of Power Sources 195 2010 30 38
64. F.A. Uribe, S. Gottesfeld, and T.A. Zawodzinksi Effect of ammonia as potential fuel impurity on proton exchange membrane fuel cell performance Journal of the Electrochemical Society 149 2002 A293 A296
65. H.J. Soto, W.K. Lee, J.W. van Zee, and M. Murthy Effect of transient ammonia concentrations on PEMFC performance Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 6 2003 A133 A135
66. R. Halseid, P.J.S. Vie, and R. Tunold Effect of ammonia on the performance of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 154 2006 343 350 (316) (Pubitemid 43343788)
67. R. Halseid, P.J.S. Vie, and R. Tunold Influence of ammonium on conductivity and water content of Nafion 117 membranes Journal of the Electrochemical Society 151 2004 A381 A388 (318)
68. M.J. Kelly, B. Egger, G. Fafilek, J.O. Besenhard, H. Kronberger, and G.E. Nauer Conductivity of polymer membranes by impedance spectroscopy with microelectrodes Solid State Ionics 176 2005 2111 2114 (Pubitemid 41214620)
69. M.J. Kelly, G. Fafilek, J.O. Besenhard, H. Kronberger, and G.E. Nauer Contaminant absorption and conductivity in polymer electrolyte membranes Journal of Power Sources 145 2005 249 252
70. T. Okada, Y. Ayato, M. Yuasa, and I. Sekine The effect of impurity cations on the transport characteristics of perfluorosulfonated ionomer membranes The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 103 1999 3315 3322 (Pubitemid 129701969)
71. J. St-Pierre, D.P. Wilkinson, S. Knights, and M. Bos Relationships between water management, contamination and lifetime degradation in PEFC Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems 3 2000 99 106
72. T. Okada W. Vielstich, A. Lamm, H. Gasteiger, Handbook of fuel cells - fundamentals, technology and applications vol. 3 2003 Wiley Chichester, England 627 646
73. M. Shi, and F.C. Anson Dehydration of protonated Nafion - coatings inducted by cation exchange and monitored by quartz crystal microgravimetry Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 425 1997 117 123 (Pubitemid 127414212)
74. 2+ cations Journal of the Electrochemical Society 144 1997 2744 2750 (Pubitemid 127585407)
75. A. Damjanovic, M.A. Genshaw, and J.O.M. Bockris Distinction between intermediates produced in main and side electrodic reactions Journal of Chemical Physics 45 1966 4057 4059
76. H.A. Wroblow, Y.-C. Pan, and G. Razumney Electroreduction of oxygen: a new mechanistic criterion Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 69 1976 195 201
77. A.J. Appleby Electrocatalysis and fuel cells Catalysis Reviews 4 1971 221 243
78. W. Liu, and D. Zuckerbrod In situ detection of hydrogen peroxide in PEM fuel cells Journal of the Electrochemical Society 152 2005 A1165 A1170
79. V.A. Sethuraman, J.W. Weidner, A.T. Haung, and L.V. Protsialo Durability of perfluorosulfonic acid and hydrocarbon membranes: effect of humidity and temperature Journal of the Electrochemical Society 155 2008 B119 B124
80. 2 production in PEMFC cathode conditions Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 30 2000 839 844
81. A. Damjanovic, and V. Brusic Electrode kinetics of oxygen reduction on oxide-free platinum electrodes Electrochimica Acta 12 1967 615 628
82. A. Panchenko, M.T.M. Koper, T.E. Shubina, S.J. Mitchell, and E. Roduner Ab initio calculations of intermediates of oxygen reduction on low-index platinum surfaces Journal of the Electrochemical Society 151 2004 A2016 A2027
83. N.M. Markovic, T.J. Schmidt, B.N. Grgur, H.A. Gasteiger, R.J. Behm, and P.N. Ross Effect of temperature on surface processes at the Pt (111) - liquid interface: hydrogen adsorption, oxide formation and CO oxidation Journal of Physical Chemistry B 103 1999 8568 8577 (Pubitemid 129613893)
84. N.M. Marković, B.N. Grgur, and P.N. Ross Temperature dependent hydrogen electrochemistry on platinum low index single crystal surfaces in acid solutions The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 101 1997 5405 5413 (Pubitemid 127581168)
85. T. Zhang, and A.B. Anderson Hydrogen oxidation and evolution on platinum electrodes in base: theoretical study The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 111 2007 8644 8648 (Pubitemid 47152644)
86. 2 oxidation on Pt (100) from potential dependent activation energies The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 108 2004 19,917 19,920
87. J.X. Wang, T.E. Springer, and R.R. Adzic Dual pathway kinetic equation for the hydrogen oxidation reaction on Pt electrodes Journal of the Electrochemical Society 153 2006 A1732 A1740
88. J. Tafel Polarization with cathodic hydrogen liberation Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie 50 1905 641 712
89. T. Erdey-Grúz, and M. Volmer Theory of hydrogen overpotential Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie 150 1930 203 213
90. J. Heyrovsky Recl Trav Chim Pays-Bas 46 1927 582
91. E. Endoh, S. Terazono, H. Widjaja, and Y. Takimoto Degradation study of MEA for PEMFCs under low humidity conditions Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 7 2004 A209 A211
92. J. Xie, D.L. Wood III, D.M. Wayne, T.A. Zawodzinksi, P. Atanassov, and R.L. Borup Durability of PEFCs at high humidity conditions Journal of the Electrochemical Society 152 2005 A104 A113
93. J. Amphlett, R. Baumert, R. Mann, B. Peppley, P. Roberge, and T. Harris Performance modeling of the Ballard Mark IV solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell I. mechanistic model development Journal of the Electrochemical Society 142 1995 1 8
94. M. Aoki, H. Uchida, and M. Watanabe Novel evaluation method for degradation rate of polymer electrolytes in fuel cells Electrochemistry Communications 7 2005 1434 1438 (Pubitemid 41660209)
95. ® ion membranes Journal of Power Sources 171 2007 140 147 (Pubitemid 47332959)
96. M. Inaba, T. Kinumoto, M. Kiriake, R. Umebayashi, A. Tasaka, and Z. Ogumi Gas crossover and membrane degradation in polymer electrolyte fuel cells Electrochimica Acta 51 2006 5746 5753 (Pubitemid 44148542)
97. ® degradation in PEFCs from end plate iron contamination Electrochimica Acta 48 2003 1543 1549
98. J. Wind, R. Späh, W. Kaiser, and G. Böhm Metallic bipolar plates for PEM fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 105 2002 256 260
99. R.C. Makkus, A.H.H. Janssen, F.A. de Bruijn, and R.K.A.M. Mallan Use of stainless steel for cost competitive bipolar plates in the SPFC Journal of Power Sources 86 2000 274 282 (Pubitemid 30587042)
100. F. Harber, and J. Weiss The catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by ion salts Proceedings of the Royal Society of Series A 147 1934 332 351
101. W.G. Barb, J.H. Baxendal, P. George, and K.R. Hargrave Reactions of ferrous and ferric ions with hydrogen peroxide: part 1 - the ferrous ion reaction Transactions of Faraday Society 47 1951 462 500
102. J. Healy, C. Hayden, T. Xie, K. Olson, R. Waldo, and M. Brundage Aspects of the chemical degradation of PFSA ionomers used in PEM fuel cells Fuel Cells 5 2005 302 308 (Pubitemid 40643706)
103. ® membrane degradation Journal of Power Sources 169 2007 288 295 (Pubitemid 46755515)
104. C. Zhou, M.A. Guerra, Z.-M. Qiu, T.A. Zawodzinski, and D.A. Schiraldi Chemical durability studies of perfluorinated sulfonic acid polymers and model compounds under mimic fuel cell conditions Macromolecules 40 2007 8695 8707 (Pubitemid 350241372)
105. T. Xie, and C. Hayden A kinetic model for the chemical degradation of perfluorinated sulfonic acid ionomers: weak end groups versus side chain cleavage Polymer 48 2007 5497 5506 (Pubitemid 47385822)
106. H. Tang, M. Pan, F. Wang, P.K. Shen, and S.P. Jiang Highly durable proton exchange membranes for low temperature fuel cells The Journal of Physical Chemistry B: Letters 111 2007 8684 8690 (Pubitemid 47317440)
107. B. Vogel, E. Aleksandrova, S. Mitov, M. Krafft, A. Dreizler, and J. Kerres Observation of fuel cell membrane degradation by ex-situ and in-situ electron paramagnetic resonance ECS Transactions 11 2007 1105 1114
108. W.E. Delaney, and W.K. Liu The use of FTIR to analyze ex-situ and in-situ degradation of perfluorinated fuel cell ionomer ESC Transactions 207 11 2007 1093 1104
109. ® degradation experiments Polymer Degradation and Stability 93 2008 214 224
110. D. Gomes, J. Roeder, M.L. Ponce, and S.P. Nunes Single step synthesis of sulfonated polyoxadiazoles and their use as proton conducting membranes Journal of Power Sources 175 2008 49 59 (Pubitemid 350151658)
111. G. Zhang, X. Guo, J. Fang, K. Chen, and K. Okamoto Preparation and properties of covalently cross linked sulfonated copolyimide membranes containing benzimidazole groups Journal of Membrane Science 326 2009 708 713
112. K.-S. Lee, M.-H. J, J.-P. Lee, and J.-S. Lee End group cross linked poly (arylene ether) for proton exchange membranes Macromolecules 42 2009 584 590
113. A.C. Fernandes, and E.A. Ticianelli A performance and degradation study of Nafion 212 membrane for proton exchange membrane fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 193 2009 547 554
114. ® proton exchange membrane of PEM fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 170 2007 85 92 (Pubitemid 46818818)
115. T. Kinumoto, M. Inaba, Y. Nakayama, K. Ogata, R. Umebayashi, and A. Tasaka Durability of perfluorinated ionomer membrane against hydrogen peroxide Journal of Power Sources 158 2006 1222 1228 (Pubitemid 44307506)
116. 2 Journal of the Electrochemical Society 153 2006 A967 A974
117. W. Liu, and D. Zuckerbrod In situ detection of hydrogen peroxide in PEM fuel cells Journal of the Electrochemical Society 152 2005 A1165 A1170
118. Paik C, Skiba T, Mittal V, Motupally S, Jarvi TD. Membrane degradation studies under accelerated conditions in PEMFC. Meeting of the Electrochemical Society - Meeting Abstracts; 2005. p. 771. (Pubitemid 43217814)
119. K. Teranishi, K. Kawata, S. Tsushima, and S. Hirai Degradation mechanism of PEMFC under open circuit operation Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 9 2006 A475 A477
120. A. Ohma, S. Yamamoto, and K. Shinohara Analysis of membrane degradation behaviour during OCV hold test ECS Transactions 11 2007 1181 1192
121. T.R. Ralph, D.E. Barnwell, P.J. Bouwman, A.J. Hodgkinson, M.I. Petch, and M. Pollington Reinforced membrane durability in proton exchange membrane fuel cell stacks for automotive applications Journal of the Electrochemical Society 155 2008 B411 B422
122. A. Ohma, S. Yamamoto, and K. Shinohara Membrane degradation mechanism during open circuit voltage hold test Journal of Power Sources 182 2008 39 47
123. W. Bi, G.E. Gray, and T.F. Fuller PEM fuel cell Pt/C dissolution and deposition in Nafion electrolyte Electrochemical and Solid State Letters 10 2007 B101 B104
124. A.A. Shah, T.R. Ralph, and F.C. Walsh Modeling and simulation of the degradation of perfluorinated ion-exchange membranes in PEM fuel cells Journal of the Electrochemical Society 156 2009 B465 B484
125. B.L. Kienitz, H. Baskaran, and T.A. Zawodzinski Modeling the steady-state effects of cationic contamination on polymer electrolyte membranes Electrochimica Acta 54 2009 1671 1679
126. B. Kienitz, H. Baskaran, T. Zawodzinski, and B. Pivovar A half cell model of steady state PEM fuel cell performance degradation under contamination by foreign cationic species ECS Transactions 11 2007 777 788
127. P. Trogadas, J. Parrondo, and V. Ramani Degradation mitigation in polymer electrolyte membranes using cerium oxide as a regenerative free-radical scavenger Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 11 2008 B113 B116
128. F.D. Coms, H. Liu, and J.E. Owejan Mitigation of perfluorosulfonic acid membrane chemical degradation using cerium and manganese ions ECS Transactions 16 2008 1735 1747
129. D. Schubert, R. Dargusch, J. Raitano, and W. Chan S- Cerium and yttrium oxide nanoparticles are neuroprotective Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 342 2006 86 91 (Pubitemid 43247363)
130. S. Babu, A. Velez, K. Wozniak, J. Szydlowska, and S. Seal Electron paramagnetic study on radical scavenging properties of ceria nanoparticles Chemical Physics Letters 442 2007 405 408 (Pubitemid 47016432)
131. 2-x nano-particles Nanostructured Materials 11 1999 141 147
132. Bentley J, Barnett B, Hynek S. Multifuel reformer and on-board hydrogen storages, 1992 fuel cell seminar; 1992. p. 455-60.
133. Loftus P, Thijssen J, Bentley J, Bowman J. Development of a multi-fuel partial oxidation reformer for transportation applications, 1994 fuel cell seminar; 1994. p. 487-90.
134. J. Divisek, H.-F. Oetjen, V. Peinecke, V.M. Schmidt, and U. Stimming Components for PEM fuel cell systems using hydrogen and CO containing fuels Electrochemica Acta 43 1998 3811 3815 (Pubitemid 128423492)
135. Wilson MS, Derouin C, Valerio J, Gottesfeld S. Electrocatalysis issues in polymer electrolyte fuel cells, Proceedings for the 28th IECEC; 1993. p. 1.1203-08.
136. Voecks G, DOE consultant and coordinator of the contamination group. The development of hydrogen fuel quality specification, Canada-USA PEM network research workshop, in Vancouver, BC, Canada; Feb. 16-17, 2009.
137. H. Igarashi, T. Fujino, and M. Watanabe Hydrogen electro-oxidation on platinum catalysts in the presence of trace carbon monoxide Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 391 1995 119 123
138. 2/CO as fuel gas Journal of the Electrochemical Society 143 1996 3838 3842 (Pubitemid 126607872)
139. Y. Zhu, H. Uchida, and M. Watanabe Oxidation of carbon monoxide at a platinum film electrode studied by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy with attenuated total reflection technique Langmuir 15 1999 8757 8764 (Pubitemid 129660376)
140. M. Ciureanu, and H. Wang Electrochemical impedance study of anode CO-poisoning in PEM fuel cells Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical Systems 3 2000 107 119
141. M. Murthy, M. Esayian, A. Hobson, S. MacKenzie, W.K. Lee, and J.W. Van Zee Performance of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell exposed to transient CO concentrations Journal of the Electrochemical Society 148 2001 A1141 A1147
142. M. Murthy, M. Esayian, W.K. Lee, and J.W. Van Zee The effect of temperature and pressure on the performance of a PEM FC exposed to transient CO concentrations Journal of the Electrochemical Society 150 2003 A29 A34
143. R.C. Urian, A.F. Gullá, and S. Mukerjee Electrocatalysis of reformate tolerance in proton exchange membranes fuel cells: part I Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 554-555 2003 307 324
144. T. Gu, W.K. Lee, J.W. Van Zee, and M. Murthy Effect of reformate components on PEMFC performance dilution and reverse water-gas shift reaction Journal of the Electrochemical Society 151 2004 A2100 A2105
145. W.A. Adams, J. Blair, K.R. Bullock, and C.L. Gardner Enhancement of the performance and reliability of CO poisoned PEM fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 145 2005 55 61
146. M. Boillot, C. Bonnet, N. Jatroudakis, P. Carre, S. Didierjean, and F. Lapicque Effect of gas dilution on PEM fuel cell performance and impedance response Fuel Cells 1 2006 31 37
147. J.C. Davis, and G. Tsotridis Temperature dependent kinetic study of CO desorption from Pt PEM fuel cell anodes Journal of Physical Chemistry C 112 2008 3392 3397 (Pubitemid 351488330)
148. S.K. Das, A. Reis, and K.J. Berry Experimental evaluation of CO poisoning on the performance of a high temperature proton exchange membrane fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 193 2009 691 698
149. Rodrigues A, Amphlett J, Mann R, Peppley B, Roberge P. Carbon monoxide poisoning of proton-exchange membrane fuel cells. Proceedings of the 32 intersociety energy conversion engineering conference, Honolulu, HI, USA; 27 July-1 August 1997. p. 768-73.
150. J. Amphlett, R. Baumert, R. Mann, B. Peppley, P. Roberge, and T. Harris Performance modeling of the Ballard Mark IV solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell II. Empirical model development Journal of the Electrochemical Society 142 1995 9 15
151. R. Bellows, E. Marucchi-Soos, and D. Buckley Analysis of reaction kinetics for carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide on polycrystalline platinum relative to fuel cell operation Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research 35 1996 1235 1242 (Pubitemid 126460275)
152. 2 polymer electrolyte fuel cell Electrochimica Acta 37 1992 2737 2745
153. 2 oxidation in relation to modeling for CO poisoning of a fuel cell anode Journal of the Electrochemical Society 134 1987 3021 3026 (Pubitemid 18535992)
154. T. Springer, T. Zawadzinski, and S. Gottesfeld Modeling of polymer electrolyte fuel cell performance with reformate feed streams: effects of low levels of CO in hydrogen S. Srinivasan, J. McBreen, A. Khandkar, V. Tilak, Electrode materials and processes for energy conversion and storage IV 1997 The Electrochemical Society, The Electrochemical Society, Inc. Pennington 15 24
155. 2 dilution, and high fuel utilization Journal of the Electrochemical Society 148 2001 A11 A23
156. T. Zhou, and H.A. Liu 3-D model for PEM fuel cells operated on reformate Journal of Power Sources 138 2004 101 110 (Pubitemid 41325928)
157. 2 bleeding in a PEM fuel cell anode International Journal of Energy Research 27 2003 1095 1116 (Pubitemid 37232074)
158. S. Lee, S. Mukerjee, E. Ticianelli, and J. McBreen Electrocatalysis of CO tolerance in hydrogen oxidation reaction in PEM fuel cells Electrochimica Acta 44 1999 3283 3293
159. N. Zamel, and X. Li Transient analysis of carbon monoxide poisoning and oxygen bleeding in a PEM fuel cell anode catalyst layer International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 33 2007 1335 1344
160. H.S. Chu, C.P. Wang, W.C. Liao, and W.M. Yan Transient behavior of CO poisoning of the anode catalyst layer of a PEM fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 159 2006 1071 1077 (Pubitemid 44314068)
161. C.P. Wang, and H.S. Chu Transient analysis of multicomponent transport with carbon monoxide poisoning effect of a PEM fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 159 2006 1025 1033
162. F. Barbir, B. Balasubrumanian, and J. Neutzler Trade-off design analysis of operating pressure and temperature in PEM fuel cell systems Proceedings of the ASME advanced energy systems division 1999 ASME Advanced Energy Systems Division, The American Society of Mechanical Engineers New York 305 315
163. P. Stonehart, and P. Ross The commonality of surface processes in electrocatalysis and gas-phase heterogeneous catalysis Catalysis Reviews - Science and Engineering 12 1975 1 35
164. S. Gilman The mechanism of electrochemical oxidation of carbon monoxide and methanol on platinum II: the ''reactant pair'' mechanism for electrochemical oxidation of carbon monoxide and methanol Journal of the Electrochemical Society 68 1964 70 80
165. W. Vogel, J. Lundquist, P. Ross, and P. Stonehart Reaction pathways and poisons-II: The rate controlling step for electrochemical oxidation of hydrogen
166. J.J. Baschuk, and X. Li Carbon monoxide poisoning of proton exchange membrane fuel cells International Journal of Energy Research 25 2001 695 715
167. S. Gottesfeld, and J. Pafford A new approach to the problem of carbon monoxide poisoning in fuel cells operating at low temperatures Journal of the Electrochemical Society 135 1988 2651 2652
168. R.P.H. Gasser An introduction to chemisorption and catalysis by metals 1985 Clarendon Press Oxford Chapter 9
169. T. Engel, and G. Ertle Oxidation of carbon monoxide D. King, D. Woodruff, The chemical physics of solid substances and heterogeneous catalysis Fundamental studies of heterogeneous catalysis vol. 4 1982 Elsevier Amsterdam 73 93
170. P. Norton D. King, D. Woodruff, The chemical physics of solid substances and heterogeneous catalysis Fundamental studies of heterogeneous catalysis vol. 4 1982 Elsevier Amsterdam 27 72
171. 2 bleeding in PEM fuel cells. Meeting abstracts: 2004 joint international meeting - 206th meeting of the electrochemical society in Japan; p. 1964.
172. L.P.L. Carrette, K.A. Friedrich, M. Huber, and U. Stimming Improvement of CO tolerance of proton exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cells by a pulsing technique Physical Chemistry 3 2001 320 324
173. A.H. Thomason, T.R. Lalk, and A.J. Appleby Effect of current pulsing and self oxidation on the CO tolerance of a PEM fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 135 2004 204 211
174. F. Sapountzi, M.N. Tsampas, and C.G. Vayenas Electrocatalysis and electrochemical promotion of CO oxidation in PEM fuel cells: the role of oxygen crossover Topics in Catalysis 44 2007 461 468
175. W. Wang The effect of internal air bleed on CO poisoning in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 191 2009 400 406
176. 5-type intermetallic hydride Journal of Alloys and Compounds 240 1996 L1 L3
177. A. Katasounis, S.P. Balomenou, D. Tsiplakides, M. Tsampas, and C.G. Vayenas The role of potential dependent electrolyte resistance in the performance, steady state multiplicities and oscillations of PEM fuel cells: experimental investigation and macroscopic modeling Electrochimica Acta 50 2005 5132 5143 (Pubitemid 41252441)
178. M.N. Tsampas, A. Pikos, S. Brosda, A. Katsaounis, and C.G. Vayenas The effect of membrane thickness on the conductivity of Nafion Electrochimica Acta 51 2006 2743 2755 (Pubitemid 43277690)
179. P. Dimitrova, K.A. Friedrich, B. Vogt, and U. Stimming Transport properties of ionomer composite membranes for direct methanol fuel cells Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 532 2002 75 83
180. ® membranes used in polymer electrolyte fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 134 2004 18 26 (Pubitemid 41326000)
181. O.A. Petrii, and V.E. Kazarinov Investigation of electrolytically mixed deposits of platinum and palladium with ruthenium Elektrokhimiya 1 1965 1389 1391
182. V.S. Entina, and O.A. Petrii Mechanism of methanol oxidation on a platinum-ruthenium electrode Elektrokhimiya 3 1967 1237 1240
183. V.S. Entina, and O.A. Petrii Adsorption properties of ruthenium and platinum-ruthenium electrodes Elecktrokhimiya 4 1968 457 461
184. V.S. Entina, and O.A. Petrii Methanol electrooxidation on platinum-ruthenium and ruthenium electrodes at various temperatures Elektrokhimiya 4 1968 678 681
185. J.O.M. Bockris, and H. Wroblowa Electrocatalysis Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 7 1964 428 451
186. M. Watanabe, and S. Motoo Electrocatalysis by AD-atoms: part II. Enhancement of the oxidation of methanol on platinum by ruthenium AD-atoms Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry 60 1975 267 273
187. 2 and Co electrooxidation on well characterized Pt, Ru and Pt-Ru. 1: rotating disk electrode studies of the pure gases including temperature effects Journal of Physical Chemistry 99 1995 8290 8301
188. J. Zhang, and R. Datta Online monitoring of anode outlet CO concentration in PEM fuel cells Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 6 2003 A5 A8
189. S. Enbäck, and G. Lindbergh Experimentally validated model for CO oxidation on PtRu/C in a porous PEFC electrode Journal of the Electrochemical Society 152 2005 A23 A31
190. E.I. Santiago, V.A. Paganin, M. do Carmo, E.R. Gonzalez, and E.A. Ticianelli Studies of CO tolerance on modified gas diffusion electrodes containing ruthenium dispersed on carbon Journal of the Electroanalytical Chemistry 575 2005 53 60 (Pubitemid 40142453)
191. H. Yamada, D. Shimoda, K. Matsuzawa, A. Tasaka, and M. Inaba Stability of Pt-Ru/C catalysts: effect of Ru content ECS Transactions 11 2007 325 334
192. O.A. Petrii Pt-Ru electrocatalysts for fuel cells: a representative review Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 12 2008 609 642 (Pubitemid 351334003)
193. A. Pitois, J.C. Davies, A. Pilenga, A. Pfrang, and G. Tsotridis Kinetic study of CO desoprtion from PtRu/C PEM fuel cell anodes: temperature dependence and associated microstructural transformations Journal of Catalysis 265 2009 199 208
194. H. Yu, Z. Hou, B. Yi, and Z. Lin Composite anode for CO tolerance proton exchange membrane fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 105 2002 52 57
195. W. Shi, M. Hou, Z. Shao, J. Hu, Z. Hou, and P. Ming A novel proton exchange membrane fuel cell anode for enhancing CO tolerance Journal of Power Sources 174 2007 164 169 (Pubitemid 350051653)
196. C.-H. Wan, and H. Zhuang Q- Novel layer wise anode structure with improved CO-tolerance capability for PEM fuel cell Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 4111 4123
197. A.B. Anderson, and E. Grantscharova Catalytic effect of ruthenium in ruthenium-platinum alloys on the electrooxidation of methanol: molecular orbital theory Journal of Physical Chemistry 99 1995 9149 9154
198. A.B. Anderson, E. Grantscharova, and S. Seong Systematic theoretical study of alloys of platinum for enhanced methanol fuel cell performance Journal of the Electrochemical Society 143 1996 2075 2082 (Pubitemid 126562177)
199. 33.3% (111) surfaces Electrochimica Acta 48 2003 3759 3773
200. D. Cao, G.Q. Lu, A. Wieckowski, S.A. Wasileski, and M. Neurock Mechanisms of methanol decomposition on platinum: a combined experimental and ab Initio approach Journal of Physical Chemistry B 109 2005 11622 11633
201. T.H.M. Housamans, A.H. Wonders, and M.T.M. Koper Structure sensitivity of methanol electrooxidation pathways on platinum: an on-line electrochemical mass spectrometry study Journal of Physical Chemistry B 110 2006 10021 10031 (Pubitemid 44026211)
202. A. Cuesta At least three contiguous atoms are necessary for CO formation during methanol electrooxidation on platinum Journal of the American Chemical Society 128 2006 13332 13333 (Pubitemid 44582998)
203. M.T.M. Koper Electrocatalysis on bimetallic and alloy surfaces Surface Science 548 2004 1 3
204. 2Ru surface Electrochemistry Communications 8 2006 703 706
205. P. Liu, and J.K. Nørskov Kinetics of the anode processes in PEM fuel cells: the promoting effect of Ru in PtRu anodes Fuel Cells 1 2002 192 201
206. 3Sn Electrochimica Acta 48 2003 3731 3742
207. M. Lischka, C. Mosch, and A. Groß Tuning catalytic properties of bimetallic surfaces: oxygen adsorption on pseudomorphic Pt/Ru overlayers Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 2219 2228 (Pubitemid 46072828)
208. C. Hartnig, J. Grimminger, and E. Spohr The role of water in the initial steps of methanol oxidation on Pt (211) Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 2236 2243 (Pubitemid 46072819)
209. J.C. Davies, B.E. Hayden, D.J. Pegg, and M.E. Rendall The electro-oxidation of carbon monoxide on ruthenium modified Pt (111) Surface Science 496 2002 110 120 (Pubitemid 33143460)
210. M. Watanabe, and S. Motoo Electrocatalysis by AD-atoms: part II. Enhancement of the oxidation of methanol on platinum by ruthenium AD-atoms Electroanalytical Chemistry and Interfacial Electrochemistry 60 1975 267 273
211. S. Enbäck, and G. Lindbergh Experimentally validated model for CO oxidation on PtRu/C in a porous PEFC electrode Journal of the Electrochemical Society 152 2005 A23 A31
212. P. Piela, C. Eickes, E. Brosha, F. Garzon, and P. Zelenay Ruthenium crossover in direct methanol fuel cell with Pt-Ru black anode Journal of the Electrochemical Society 151 2004 A2053 A2059
213. 3 (Cl) reforming catalyst Journal of Catalysis 99 1986 159 170
214. R. Srinivasan, R.J. de Angeles, and B.H. Davis Alloy formation in Pt-Sn alumina catalysts: in situ X-ray diffraction study Journal of Catalysis 106 1987 449 457
215. R. Srinivasan, R.J. de Angeles, and B.H. Davis Structural studies of Pt-Sn catalysts on high and low surface area alumina supports Catalysis Letters 4 1990 303 308
216. R. Srinivasan, L.A. Rice, and B.H. Davis Electron microdiffraction study of Pt-Sn alumina reforming catalysts Journal of Catalysis 129 1991 257 268
217. 3SN electrode surface Journal of Physical Chemistry 99 1995 8945 8949
218. 3Sn single-crystal alloy surfaces Catalysis Letters 36 1995 1 8 (Pubitemid 126464714)
219. K. Wang, H.A. Gasteiger, N.M. Marković, and P.N. Ross On the reaction pathway for methanol and carbon monoxide electrooxidation on Pt-Sn alloy versus Pt-Ru alloy surfaces Electrochimica Acta 41 1996 2587 2593 (Pubitemid 126338579)
220. E.M. Crabb, R. Marshall, and T. David Carbon monoxide electro-oxidation properties of carbon supported PtSn catalysts prepared using surface organometallic chemistry Journal of the Electrochemical Society 147 2000 4440 4447 (Pubitemid 32087637)
221. 3Sn Electrochimica Acta 48 2003 3731 3742
222. C. Dupont, Y. Jugnet, and D. Loffreda Theoretical evidence of PtSn alloy efficiency for CO oxidation Journal of American Chemical Society 128 2006 9129 9136 (Pubitemid 44088323)
223. A.C. Garcia, V.A. Paganin, and E.A. Ticianelli CO tolerance of PdPt/C and PdPtRu /C anodes for PEMFC Electrochimica Acta 53 2008 4309 4315
224. D.C. Papageorgopoulos, M. Keijzer, J.B.J. Veldhuis, and F.A. de Bruijn CO tolerance of Pd-rich platinum palladium carbon-supported electrocatalysts Journal of Electrochemical Society 149 2002 A1400 A1404
225. Y.-H. Cho, B. Choi, Y.-H. Cho, H.-S. Park, and Y.-E. Sung Pd-based PdPt (19: 1)/C electrocatalyst as an electrode in PEM fuel cell Electrochemical Communications 9 2007 378 381 (Pubitemid 46366826)
226. D.C. Papageorgopoulos, M. Keijzer, and F.E. de Bruijn The inclusion of Mo, Nb and Ta in Pt and PtRu carbon supported electrocatalysts in the quest for improved CO tolerant PEMFC Electrochimica Acta 48 2002 197 204 (Pubitemid 35384574)
227. S. Mukerjee, S.J. Lee, E.A. Ticianelli, J. McBeen, B.N. Grgur, and N.M. Markovic Investigation of enhanced CO tolerance in proton exchange membrane fuel cells by carbon supported PtMo alloy catalyst Electrochemical and Solid State Letters 2 1999 12 15
228. y Journal of the Electrochemical Society 146 1999 1613 1619
229. H. Zhang, Y. Wang, E.R. Fachini, and C.R. Cabrera Electrochemically codeposited PtMo oxide electrode for catalytic oxidation of methanol in acid solution Electrochemical and Solid State Letters 2 1999 437 439
230. A. Lima, C. Coutanceau, J.M. Léger, and C. Lamy Investigation of ternary catalysts for methanol electro-oxidation Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 31 2001 379 386 (Pubitemid 32427623)
231. 3 electrodes Journal of the Electrochemical Society 142 1995 L85 L86
232. 3 anode catalysts Catalysis Today 38 1997 439 443 (Pubitemid 127377078)
233. 3/C anode catalysts for the oxidation of impure hydrogen Electrochemical and Solid State Letters 3 2000 10 12 (Pubitemid 32211576)
234. x catalysts by spectroscopic and diffraction methods Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 31 2001 793 798 (Pubitemid 32694140)
235. 3/C (Me=W, Mo) made by composite support method Journal of Power Sources 123 2003 116 125 (Pubitemid 41177375)
236. M. Götz, and H. Wendt Binary and ternary anode catalyst formulations including the elements W, Sn and Mo for PEMFCs operated on methanol or reformate gas Electrochimica Acta 43 1998 3637 3644 (Pubitemid 128423473)
237. P.N. Ross, and P. Stonehard Surface characterization of catalytically active tungsten carbide (WC) Journal of Catalysis 39 1975 298 301
238. L.G.S. Pereira, V.A. Paganin, and E.A. Ticianelli Studies of the CO tolerance for anodes of PtFe/C in PEMFC ECS Transactions 3 2006 347 354
239. H. Igarashi, T. Fujino, Y. Zhu, H. Uchida, and M. Watanabe CO tolerance of Pt alloy electrocatalysts for polymer electrolyte fuel cells and the detoxification mechanism Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 3 2001 306 314
240. L.G.S. Pereira, F.R. dos Santos, M.E. Pereira, V.A. Paganin, and E.A. Ticianelli CO tolerance effects of tungsten based PEMFC anodes Electrochimica Acta 51 2006 4061 4066
241. M. Nagai, M. Yoshida, and H. Tominaga Tungsten and nickel tungsten carbides as anode electrocatalysts Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 5430 5436 (Pubitemid 46552011)
242. R.J. Stanis, M.-C. Kuo, J.A. Turner, and A.M. Herring Use of W, Mo and V substituted heteropolyacids for CO mitigation in PEMFCs Journal of the Electrochemical Society 155 2008 B155 B162
243. Y.H. Wang, J.L. Zhu, J.C. Zhang, L.F. Song, J.Y. Hu, and S.L. Ong Selective oxidation of CO in hydrogen rich mixtures and kinetics investigation on platinum gold supported on zinc oxide catalyst Journal of Power Sources 155 2006 440 446
244. M. Haruta Size and support dependency in the catalysis of gold Catalysis Today 36 1997 153 166 (Pubitemid 127381360)
245. P.N. Ross, and P. Stonehard Surface characterization of catalytically active tungsten carbide (WC) Journal of Catalysis 39 1975 298 301
246. D.V. Skolsky, Palanker VSh, and E.N. Baybatyrov Electrochemical hydrogen reactions on tungsten carbide Electrochimica Acta 20 1975 71 77
247. P.N. Ross, and P. Stonehard The relation of surface structure to the elctrocatalytic activity of tungsten carbide Journal of Catalysis 48 1977 42 59
248. R.D. Armstrong, and M.F. Bell Tungsten carbide catalysts for hydrogen evolution Electrochimica Acta 23 1978 1111 1115 (Pubitemid 9407824)
249. A.J. McAlister, and M.I. Cohen Electrooxidation of hydrogen on MoW carbide alloy catalysts in acid electrolyte Electrochimica Acta 25 1980 1685 1688 (Pubitemid 11453425)
250. P. Zoltowski The mechanism of the activation process of the tungsten carbide electrode Electrochimica Acta 31 1986 103 111 (Pubitemid 16502524)
251. C.J. Barnett, G.T. Burstein, A.R.J. Kucernak, and K.R. Williams Electrocatalytic activity of some carburized nickel, tungsten and molybdenum compounds Electrochimica Acta 42 1997 2381 2388 (Pubitemid 127413737)
252. K. Lee, A. Ishihara, S. Mitsushima, N. Kamiya, and K.I. Ota Stability and electrocatalytic activity for oxygen reduction in WC+Ta catalyst Electrochimica Acta 49 2004 3479 3485
253. M.B. Zellner, and J.G. Chen Surface science and electrochemical studies of WC and W2C PVD films as potential electrocatalysts Catalysis Today 99 2005 299 307
254. M.B. Zellner, and J.G. Chen Potential application of tungsten carbides as electrocatalysts: synergistic effect by supporting Pt on C/W (110) for the reactions of methanol, water and CO Journal of the Electrochemical Society 152 2005 A1483 A1494
255. T. Morishita, Y. Soneda, H. Hatori, and M. Inagaki Carbon coated tungsten and molybdenum carbides for electrode of electrochemical capacitor Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 2478 2484 (Pubitemid 46123276)
256. M. Nagai, M. Yoshida, and H. Tominaga Tungsten and nickel tungsten carbides as anode electrocatalysts Electrochimica Acta 52 2007 5430 5436 (Pubitemid 46552011)
257. S. Izhar, and M. Nagai Cobalt molybdenum carbides as anode electrocatalyst for ptoton exchange membrane fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 182 2008 52 60
258. C.D.A. Brady, E.J. Rees, and G.T. Burstein Electrocatalysis by nanocrystalline tungsten carbides and the effects of codeposited silver Journal of Power Sources 179 2008 17 26
259. 1-x nanoparticles Journal of Power Sources 193 2009 441 446
260. S. Izhar, M. Yoshida, and M. Nagai Characterization and performances of cobalt-tungsten and molybdenum-tungsten carbides as anode catalyst for PEFC Electrochimica Acta 54 2009 1255 1262
261. T.S. Mozer, D.A. Dziuba, C.T.P. Vieira, and F.B. Passos The effect of copper on the selective carbon monoxide oxidation over alumina supported gold catalysts Journal of Power Sources 187 2009 209 215
262. L.M. Molina, A. Lesarri, and J.A. Alonso New insights on the reaction mechanisms for CO oxidation on Au catalysts Chemical Physics Letters 468 2009 201 204
263. A. Serov, and C. Kwak Review of non-platinum anode catalysts for DMFC and PEMFC application Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 90 2009 313 320
264. E. Christoffersen, P. Liu, A. Ruban, H.L. Skriver, and J.K. Nørskov Anode materials for low-temperature fuel cells: a density functional theory study Journal of Catalysis 199 2001 123 131 (Pubitemid 32403890)
265. P. Strasser, Q. Fan, M. Devenney, W.H. Weinberg, P. Liu, and J.K. Nørskov High throughput experimental and theoretical predictive screening of materials: a compartative study of search strategies for new fuel cell anode catalysts Journal of Physical Chemistry B 107 2003 11013 11021
266. 3Sn Electrochimica Acta 48 2003 3731 3742
267. B. Hammer, and J.K. Nørskov Why gold is the noblest of all the metals Nature 376 1995 238 240
268. 2: fuel cell applications Catalysis Today 62 2000 249 254 (Pubitemid 32022152)
269. S.H. Oh, and R.M. Sinkevitch Carbon monoxide removal from hydrogen rich fuel cell feedstreams by selective catalytic oxidation Journal of Catalysis 142 1993 254 262
270. R.A. Lemons Fuel cells for transportation Journal of Power Sources 29 1990 251 264
271. T. Utaka, T. Takeguchi, R. Kikuchi, and K. Eguchi CO removal from reformed fuels over CU and precious metal catalysts Applied Catalysis A: General 246 2003 117 124
272. 2 catalysts prepared via the urea-nitrate combustion method Applied Catalysis A: General 244 2003 155 167
273. G.J. Hutchings, A.A. Mirzaei, R.W. Joynerb, M.R.H. Siddiqui, and S.H. Taylor Effect of preparation conditions on the catalytic performance of copper manganese oxide catalysts for CO oxidation Applied Catalysis A: General 166 1998 143 152 (Pubitemid 128388790)
274. M.L. Brown, A.W. Green, G. Cohn, and H.C. Andersen Purifying hydrogen by selective oxidation of carbon monoxide Industrial and Engineering Chemistry: Analytical Edition 52 1960 841 844
275. 2-rich gas on supported noble metal catalysts. Proceedings of the second international symposium on new materials for fuel cell and modern battery systems II; 1997. p. 642-53.
276. M. Watanabe, H. Uchida, K. Ohkubo, and H. Igarashi Hydrogen purification for fuel cells: selective oxidation of carbon monoxide on Pt-Fe/zeolite catalyst Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 46 2003 595 600 (Pubitemid 37399307)
277. M. Echigo, and T. Tabata A study of CO removal on an activated Ru catalyst for polymer electrolyte fuel cell applications Applied Catalysis A: General 251 2003 157 166
278. S. Kawatsu Advanced PEFC development for fuel cell powered vehicles Journal of Power Sources 71 1998 150 155 (Pubitemid 128446554)
279. H. Tanaka, S.I. Ito, S. Kameoka, K. Tomishige, and K. Kunimori Promoting effect of potassium in selective oxidation in hydrogen-rich stream on Rh catalysts Catalysis Communications 4 2003 1 4 (Pubitemid 41087684)
280. E. Gileadi, E. Kirowa-Eisner, and J. Penciner Interfacial electrochemistry: an experimental approach 1975 Addison-Wesley Reading
281. W. Vogel, J. Lundquist, P. Ross, and P. Stonehart Reaction pathways and poisons-II: the rate controlling step for electrochemical oxidation of hydrogen on Pt in acid and poisoning of the reaction by CO Electrochimica Acta 20 1975 79 93
282. W.H.J. Hogarth, J.C. Diniz da Costa, and G.Q. Lu Solid acid membranes for high temperature (>140°C) proton exchange membrane fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 142 2005 223 237
283. 31P NMR spectroscopy Solid State Ionics 80 1995 87 92
284. O. Savadogo Emerging membranes for electrochemical systems: part II. High temperature composite membranes for polymer electrolyte fuel cell (PEFC) applications Journal of Power Sources 127 2004 135 161 (Pubitemid 41331266)
285. H. Wu, X. Li, and P. Berg Numerical analysis of dynamic processes in fully humidified PEM fuel cells International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 32 2007 2022 2031 (Pubitemid 47247565)
286. C. Marr, and X. Li Composition and performance modeling of catalyst layer in proton exchange membrane fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 77 1999 17 27
287. D. Bernardi, and M. Vergrugge A mathematical model of the solid-polymer-electrolyte fuel cell Journal of Electrochemical Society 139 1992 2477 2491 (Pubitemid 23604359)
288. J. Dean Lange's handbook of chemistry 1999 McGraw-Hill New York
289. Gas diffusion electrodes and catalyst materials catalogue 1995 E-Tek
290. J. Newman Electrochemical systems Prentice Hall international series in the physical and chemical engineering sciences 2nd ed. 1991 Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey
291. N. Zamel, and X. Li H. Li, Z. Shi, J. Zhang, Chapter 7: anode contamination modeling in PEM fuel cell contamination 2009 Taylor and Francis
292. 2 on platinum electrodes in acid solutions Electrochimica Acta 8 1963 857 865
293. P. Giunta, N. Amadeo, and M. Laborde Simulation of a low temperature water-gas shift reactor using the heterogeneous model/application to a PEM fuel cell Journal of Power Sources 156 2006 489 496 (Pubitemid 44218651)
294. R. Radhakrishnan, R.R. Willigan, Z. Dardas, and T.H. Vanderspurt AIChE Journal 52 2006 1888 1894
295. M.S. Batista, E.I. Santiago, E.M. Assaf, and E.A. Ticianelli Evaluation of water-gas shift and CO methanation processes for purification of reformate gases and the coupling to a PEM fuel cell system Journal of Power Sources 145 2005 50 54
296. G. Germani, P. Alphonse, M. Courty, Y. Schuurman, and C. Mirodatos Platinum/ceria/alumina catalysts on microstructures for carbon monoxide conversion Catalysis Today 110 2005 114 120
297. R. Radhakrishnan, R.R. Willigan, Z. Dardas, and T.H. Vanderspurt Water-gas shift activity and kinetics of Pt/Ru catalysts supported on ceria-zirconia oxides Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 66 2006 23 28
298. F.A. de Bruijn, D.C. Papageorgopoulos, E.F. Sitters, and G.J.M. Janssen The influence of carbon dioxide on PEM fuel cell anodes Journal of Power Sources 110 2002 117 124 (Pubitemid 41325343)
299. 2 poisoning on PEMFC anodes Journal of Power Sources 136 2004 45 54
300. M. Minutillo, and A. Perna Behaviour modeling of a PEMFC operating on diluted hydrogen feed International Journal of Energy Research 32 2008 1297 1308
301. F.A. de Bruijn, D.C. Papageorgopoulos, E.F. Sitters, and G.J.M. Janssen The influence of carbon dioxide on PEM fuel cells anodes Journal of Power Soruces 110 2007 117 124
302. G. Karimi, and X. Li Analysis and modeling of PEM fuel cell stack performance: effect of in situ reverse gas shift reaction and oxygen bleeding Journal of Power Sources 159 2006 943 950 (Pubitemid 44314062)
303. 2 poisoning Journal of Power Sources 188 2009 141 147
304. 2 Journal of the Electrochemical Society 153 2006 A2319 A2325
305. 2 tolerance at PtRu/C and PtMo/C Journal of Power Sources 117 2007 72 78 (Pubitemid 47332979)
306. S. Ball, A. Hodgkinson, G. Hoogers, S. Maniguet, D. Thompsett, and B. Wong The proton exchange membrane fuel cell performance of a carbon supported PtMo catalyst operating on reformate Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 5 2002 A31 A34
307. G.C. Chinchen, P.J. Denny, J.R. Jennings, M.S. Spencer, and K.C. Waugh Synthesis of methanol: part 1: catalysts and kinetics Applied Catalysis 36 1988 1 65 (Pubitemid 18563385)
308. Heinzel A, Benz W, Mahlendorf F, Niemzig O, Roes J. In: Proceedings of the fuel cell seminar, extended abstract, palm springs; 2002.
309. T. Loučka Adsorption and oxidation of sulfur and of sulfur dioxide at the platinum electrode Journal of the Electroanalytical Chemistry 31 1971 319 322
310. T. Loučka The adsorption of sulfur and simple organic substances on platinum electrodes Journal of the Electroanalytical Chemistry 36 1972 369 381
311. E. Najdeker, and E. Bishop The formation and behavior of platinum sulfide on platinum electrodes Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 41 1973 79 87
312. R. Jayaram, A.Q. Contractor, and H. Lal Formic acid oxidation at platinized platinum electrodes Journal of the Electroanalytical Chemistry 87 1978 225 237
313. A. Contractor, and H. Lal Two forms of chemisorbed sulfur on platinum and related studies Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 96 1979 175 181
314. R. Mohtadi, W.K. Lee, and J.W. van Zee The effect of temperature on the adsorption rate of hydrogen sulfide on Pt anodes in a PEMFC Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 56 2005 37 42
315. R. Mohtadi, W. Lee, S. Cowan, J. van Zee, and M. Murthy Effects of hydrogen sulfide on the performance of a PEMFC Electrochemistry and Solid State Letters 6 2003 A272 A274
316. R. Halseid, J.S. Wainright, R.F. Savinell, and R. Tunold Oxidation of ammonium on platinum in acidic solutions Journal of the Electrochemical Society 154 2007 B263 B270
317. J. Kim, S.M. Lee, S. Srinivasan, and C. Chamberlin Modeling the proton exchange membrane fuel cell performance with an empirical equation Journal of the Electrochemical Society 142 1995 2670 2674
318. S. Srinivasan, E.A. Ticianelli, C.R. Derouin, and A. Redondo Advances in solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell technology with low platinum loading electrodes Journal of Power Sources 22 1988 359 375
319. Z. Shi, D. Song, J. Zhang, Z.S. Liu, S. Knights, and R. Vohra Transient analysis of hydrogen sulfide contamination on the performance of a PEM fuel cell Journal of the Electrochemical Society 154 2007 B609 B615
320. A.A. Shah, and F.C. Walsh A model for hydrogen sulfide poisoning in proton exchange membrane fuel cells Journal of Power Sources 185 2008 287 301
321. M. Mathieu, and M. Primet Sulfurization and regeneration of platinum Applied Catalysis 9 1984 361 370
322. T. Rockward, I.G. Urdampilleta, F.A. Uribe, E.L. Brosha, B.S. Pivovar, and F.H. Garzon The effects of multiple contaminants on polymer electrolyte fuel cells ECS Transactions 11 2007 821 829
323. T. Loučka The formation and reduction of an oxide layer on a platinum electrode partially covered with adsorbed sulfur Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 44 1973 221 227
324. Y. Wang, H. Yan, and E. Wang The electrochemical oxidation and the quantitative determination of hydrogen sulfide on a solid polymer electrolyte-based system Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 497 2001 163 167
325. J.J. Pietron, C. Laberty, and K.E. Swider-Lyons Metal-carbides based hydrodesulfurization catalysts as sulfur-tolerant electrocatalysts for PEMFC anodes ECS Transactions 3 2006 471 477
326. 2S: dependence on operating conditions ECS Transactions 11 2007 831 842
327. Borup R, Inbody M, Tafoya, Semelsberger T, Perry L. Durability studies: Gasoline/reformate durability, from 2002 National Laboratory R&D meeting DOE fuel cells for transportation program; 2002. Available from: http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/nn0123ba.pdf.