Diagnosis and treatment of sleep apnea in adolescents

Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 2010, Pages 457-479

  Burg, Casey J ^a   Friedman, Norman R ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

OXYGEN;

ADOLESCENT; ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; HUMAN; ORTHODONTIC DEVICE; OXIMETRY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHARYNX; POLYSOMNOGRAPHY; REVIEW; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROME; TONSILLECTOMY;

ADOLESCENT; HUMANS; ORTHODONTIC APPLIANCES; OXIMETRY; OXYGEN; PHARYNX; POLYSOMNOGRAPHY; RESPIRATION, ARTIFICIAL; SLEEP APNEA SYNDROMES; SLEEP APNEA, OBSTRUCTIVE; TONSILLECTOMY;

EID: 79952264284     PISSN: 19344287     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Schwab RL. Anatomy and physiology of upper airway obstruction. In: Kryger MH, Dement W, eds. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2005:983-1000
2. Katz ES, White DP. Genioglossus activity in children with obstructive sleep apnea during wakefulness and sleep onset. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;168(6):664-670 (Pubitemid 37175969)
3. Katz ES, D'Ambrosio CM. Pathophysiology of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008;5(2):253-262 (Pubitemid 351237885)
4. Woodson BT, Franco R. Physiology of sleep disordered breathing. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2007;40(4):691-711 (Pubitemid 46990406)
5. Sher AE. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: a complex disorder of the upper airway. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 1990;23(4):593-608 (Pubitemid 20245027)
6. Sher AE, Shprintzen RJ, Thorpy MJ. Endoscopic observations of obstructive sleep apnea in children with anomalous upper airways: predictive and therapeutic value. Int J Pediatr Oto-rhinolaryngol. 1986;11(2):135-146 (Pubitemid 16082097)
7. Mallory GB Jr, Fiser DH, Jackson R. Sleep-associated breathing disorders in morbidly obese children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 1989;115(6):892-897 (Pubitemid 20007073)
8. Horner RL, Mohiaddin RH, Lowell DG, et al. Sites and size of fat deposits around the pharynx in obese patients with obstructive sleep apnoea and weight matched controls. Eur Respir J. 1989;2(7):613-622 (Pubitemid 19213102)
9. Bhattacharjee R, Dayyat E, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Sans Capdevila O, Gozal D. Nocturnal polysomnography characteristics of habitually snoring children initially referred to pediatric ENT or sleep clinics. Sleep Med. 2009;10(9):1031-1034
10. Carroll JL, McColley SA, Marcus CL, Curtis S, Loughlin GM. Inability of clinical history to distinguish primary snoring from obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in childrea Chest. 1995; 108(3):610-618
11. O'Brien LM, Mervis CB, Holbrook CR, et al. Neurobehavioral correlates of sleep-disordered breathing in children. J Sleep Res. 2004;13(2):165-172 (Pubitemid 38829898)
12. Chervin RD, Archbold KH. Hyperactivity and polysomnographic findings in children evaluated for sleep-disordered breathing. Sleep. 2001;24(3):313-320 (Pubitemid 32319353)
13. Bass JL, Corwin M, Gozal D, et al. The effect of chronic or intermittent hypoxia on cognition in childhood: a review of the evidence. Pediatrics. 2004;114(3):805-816 (Pubitemid 41529542)
14. Spicuzza L, Leonardi S, La Rosa M. Pediatric sleep apnea: early onset of the 'syndrome'? Sleep Med Rev. 2009;13(2): 111-122
15. Chervin RD, Archbold KH, Dillon JE, et al. Inattention, hyperactivity, and symptoms of sleep-disordered breathing. Pediatrics. 2002;109(3):449-456 (Pubitemid 34177508)
16. Blunden S, Lushington K, Kennedy D, Martin J, Dawson D. Behavior and neurocognitive performance in children aged 5-10 years who snore compared to controls. J Clin Exp Neuro-psychol. 2000;22(5):554-568
17. Sans Capdevila O, Crabtree VM, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Increased morning brain natriuretic peptide levels in children with nocturnal enuresis and sleep-disordered breathing: a community-based study. Pediatrics. 2008;121(5):e1208-1214
18. Guilleminault C, Lee JH, Chan A. Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2005;159(8):775-785 (Pubitemid 41126844)
19. Ohayon MM. The effects of breathing-related sleep disorders on mood disturbances in the general population. J Clin Psychiatry. 2003;64(10):1195-1200
20. Rosen CL, Palermo TM, Larkin EK, Redline S. Health-related quality of life and sleep-disordered breathing in children. Sleep. 2002;25(6):657-666 (Pubitemid 34977505)
21. Gozal D. Sleep-disordered breathing and school performance in children. Pediatrics. 1998; 102(3 Pt 1):616-620 (Pubitemid 28409262)
22. Rhodes SK, Shimoda KC, Waid LR, et al. Neurocognitive deficits in morbidly obese children with obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr. 1995;127(5):741-744
23. Beebe DW. Neurobehavioral morbidity associated with disordered breathing during sleep in children: a comprehensive review. Sleep. 2006;29(9):1115-1134 (Pubitemid 44484806)
24. Blunden SL, Beebe DW. The contribution of intermittent hypoxia, sleep debt and sleep disruption to daytime performance deficits in children: consideration of respiratory and nonrespiratory sleep disorders. Sleep Med Rev. 2006;10(2):109-118
25. Halbower AC, Mahon EM. Neuropsychological morbidity linked to childhood sleep-disordered breathing. Sleep Med Rev. 2006;10(2):97-107
26. Archbold KH, Pituch KJ, Panahi P, Chervin RD. Symptoms of sleep disturbances among children at two general pediatric clinics. J Pediatr. 2002;140(1):97-102 (Pubitemid 34117474)
27. O'Brien LM, Holbrook CR, Mervis CB, et al. Sleep and neurobehavioral characteristics of 5-to 7-year-old children with parentally reported symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. 2003;111(3):554-563 (Pubitemid 36330712)
28. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Neurocognitive and behavioral morbidity in children with sleep disorders. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2007;13(6):505-509 (Pubitemid 47494199)
29. Section on Pediatric Pulmonology, Subcommittee on Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome. American Academy of Pediatrics. Clinical practice guideline: diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics. 2002;109(4):704-712
30. Dempsey JA, Skatrud JB, Jacques AJ, et al. Anatomic determinants of sleep-disordered breathing across the spectrum of clinical and nonclinical male subjects. Chest. 2002; 122(3): 840-851
31. Epstein U, Kristo D, Strollo PJ Jr, et al. Clinical guideline for the evaluation, management and long-term care of obstructive sleep apnea in adults. J Clin Sleep Med. 2009;5(3):263-276
32. Dayyat E, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Childhood obstructive sleep apnea: one or two distinct disease entities? Sleep Med Clin. 2007;2(3):433-444
33. Rudnick EF, Walsh JS, Hampton MC, Mitchell RB. Prevalence and ethnicity of sleep-disordered breathing and obesity in children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;137(6):878-882 (Pubitemid 350117066)
34. Peppard PE, Young T, Palta M, Dempsey J, Skatrud J. Longitudinal study of moderate weight change and sleep-disordered breathing. JAMA. 2000;284(23):3015-3021 (Pubitemid 32014738)
35. Bhattacharjee R, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Pillar G, Gozal D. Cardiovascular complications of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: evidence from children. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2009;51(5): 416-433
36. Bixler EO, Vgontzas AN, Lin HM, et al. Blood pressure associated with sleep-disordered breathing in a population sample of children. Hypertension. 2008;52(5):841-846
37. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Cardiovascular morbidity in obstructive sleep apnea: oxidative stress, inflammation, and much more. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008;177(4):369-375 (Pubitemid 351317579)
38. Amin RS, Kimball TR, Kalra M, et al. Left ventricular function in children with sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Cardiol. 2005;95(6):801-804 (Pubitemid 40332669)
39. Fletcher EC. Effect of episodic hypoxia on sympathetic activity and blood pressure. Respir Physiol. 2000;119(2-3):189-197 (Pubitemid 30155574)
40. Tahawi Z, Orolinova N, Joshua IG, Bader M, Fletcher EC. Altered vascular reactivity in arterioles of chronic intermittent hypoxic rats. J Appl Physiol. 2001;90(5):2007-2013
41. Chan JY, Li AM, Au CT, et al. Cardiac remodelling and dysfunction in children with obstructive sleep apnoea: a community based study. Thorax. 2009;64(3):233-239
42. Gozal D, Kheirandish L. Oxidant stress and inflammation in the snoring child: confluent pathways to upper airway pathogenesis and end-organ morbidity. Sleep Med Rev. 2006;10(2): 83-96
43. Gozal D, Serpero LD, Sans Capdevila O, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Systemic inflammation in non-obese children with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Med. 2008;9(3):254-259 (Pubitemid 351387097)
44. Waters KA, Mast BT, Vella S, et al. Structural equation modeling of sleep apnea, inflammation, and metabolic dysfunction in children. J Sleep Res. 2007;16(4):388-395 (Pubitemid 350153623)
45. Gozal D, Capdevila OS, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Metabolic alterations and systemic inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea among nonobese and obese prepubertal children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177(10):1142-1149 (Pubitemid 351717574)
46. Gozal D, Sans Capdevila O, McLaughlin Crabtree V, Serpero LD, Witcher LA, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Plasma IGF-1 levels and cognitive dysfunction in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Med. 2009;10(2): 167-173
47. Gozal D, Crabtree VM, Sans Capdevila O, Witcher LA, Kheirandish-Gozal L. C-reactive protein, obstructive sleep apnea, and cognitive dysfunction in school-aged children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176(2):188-193 (Pubitemid 47057856)
48. Hogan AM, Hill CM, Harrison D, Kirkham FJ. Cerebral blood flow velocity and cognition in children before and after adenotonsillectomy. Pediatrics. 2008;122(1):75-82
49. Friedman BC, Hendeles-Amitai A, Kozminsky E, et al. Adenotonsillectomy improves neuro-cognitive function in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep. 2003;26(8):999-1005 (Pubitemid 39619761)
50. Montgomery-Downs HE, Crabtree VM, Gozal D. Cognition, sleep and respiration in at-risk children treated for obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J. 2005;25(2):336-342 (Pubitemid 40246536)
51. Halbower AC, Degaonkar M, Barker PB, et al. Childhood obstructive sleep apnea associates with neuropsychological deficits and neuronal brain injury. PLoS Med. 2006;3(8):e301
52. Gozal D, Capdevila OS, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Crabtree VM. APOE epsilon 4 allele, cognitive dysfunction, and obstructive sleep apnea in children. Neurology. 2007;69(3):243-249 (Pubitemid 47205685)
53. Beebe DW. Neurobehavioral effects of obstructive sleep apnea: an overview and heuristic model. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 2005; 11(6):494-500 (Pubitemid 41564998)
54. Brietzke SE, Katz ES, Roberson DW. Can history and physical examination reliably diagnose pediatric obstructive sleep apnea/hypopnea syndrome? A systematic review of the literature. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2004;131(6):827-832 (Pubitemid 39575935)
55. Goldstein NA, Sculerati N, Walsleben JA, et al. Clinical diagnosis of pediatric obstructive sleep apnea validated by polysomnography. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1994;111(5):611-617 (Pubitemid 24376650)
56. Suen JS, Arnold JE, Brooks LJ. Adenotonsillectomy for treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 1995;121(5):525-530
57. Chervin RD, Hedger K, Dillon JE, Pituch KJ. Pediatric sleep questionnaire (PSQ): validity and reliability of scales for sleep-disordered breathing, snoring, sleepiness, and behavioral problems. Sleep Med. 2000;1(1):21-32
58. Chervin RD, Weatherly RA, Garetz SL, et al. Pediatric sleep questionnaire: prediction of sleep apnea and outcomes. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;133(3):216-222 (Pubitemid 46457027)
59. Owens JA, Witmans M. Sleep problems. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 2004;34(4): 154-179 (Pubitemid 38444058)
60. Montgomery-Downs HE, O'Brien LM, Holbrook CR, Gozal D. Snoring and sleep-disordered breathing in young children: subjective and objective correlates. Sleep. 2004;27(1):87-94 (Pubitemid 43906317)
61. Li AM, Cheung A, Chan D, et al. Validation of a questionnaire instrument for prediction of obstructive sleep apnea in Hong Kong Chinese children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2006;41(12): 1153-1160 (Pubitemid 44893868)
62. Brouilette R, Hanson D, David R, et al. A diagnostic approach to suspected obstructive sleep apnea in children. J Pediatr. 1984;105(1):10-14 (Pubitemid 14086261)
63. Xu Z, Cheuk DK, Lee SL. Clinical evaluation in predicting childhood obstructive sleep apnea. Chest. 2006;130(6):1765-1771 (Pubitemid 46033431)
64. Poels PJ, Schilder AG, van den Berg S, Hoes AW, Joosten KF. Evaluation of a new device for home cardiorespiratory recording in children. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2003; 129(12): 1281-1284 (Pubitemid 37523100)
65. Zucconi M, Calori G, Castronovo V, Ferini-Strambi L. Respiratory monitoring by means of an unattended device in children with suspected uncomplicated obstructive sleep apnea: a validation study. Chest. 2003;124(2):602-607. (Pubitemid 37000140)
66. O'Brien LM, Gozal D. Potential usefulness of noninvasive autonomic monitoring in recognition of arousals in normal healthy children. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007;3(1):41-47 (Pubitemid 46761008)
67. Goodwin JL, Enright PL, Kaemingk KL, et al. Feasibility of using unattended polysomnography in children for research-report of the Tucson Children's Assessment of Sleep Apnea study (TuCASA). Sleep. 2001;24(8):937-944 (Pubitemid 33116995)
68. American Thoracic Society. Standards and indications for cardiopulmonary sleep studies in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153(2):866-878
69. American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The international classification of sleep disorders: diagnostic and coding manual. 2nd ed. Westchester, IL: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2005
70. Carno MA, Modrak J, Short R, Ellis ER, Connolly HV. Sleep associated gas exchange abnormalities in children and adolescents with habitual snoring. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2009;44(4): 364-372
71. Saeed MM, Keens TG, Stabile MW, Bolokowicz J, Davidson Ward SL. Should children with suspected obstructive sleep apnea syndrome and normal nap sleep studies have overnight sleep studies? Chest. 2000; 118(2):360-365 (Pubitemid 30637800)
72. Sivan Y, Kornecki A, Schonfeld T. Screening obstructive sleep apnoea syndrome by home videotape recording in children. Eur Respir J. 1996;9(10):2127-2131 (Pubitemid 26333555)
73. Marsh RR, Potsic WP, Pasquariello PS. Reliability of sleep sonography in detecting upper airway obstruction in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1989;18(1):l-8
74. Kushida CA, Littner MR, Morgenthaler T, et al. Practice parameters for the indications for polysomnography and related procedures: an update for 2005. Sleep. 2005;28(4):499-521 (Pubitemid 40489844)
75. Brouillette RT, Morielli A, Leimanis A, et al. Nocturnal pulse oximetry as an abbreviated testing modality for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics. 2000;105(2):405-412 (Pubitemid 30078686)
76. Nixon GM, Kermack AS, Davis GM, Manoukian JJ, Brown KA, Brouillette RT. Planning adenotonsillectomy in children with obstructive sleep apnea: the role of overnight oximetry. Pediatrics. 2004,113(1 Pt 1):e19-e25
77. Larkin EK, Rosen CL, Kirchner HL, et al. Variation of C-reactive protein levels in adolescents: association with sleep-disordered breathing and sleep duration. Circulation. 2005;111(15): 1978-1984 (Pubitemid 40570218)
78. Tauman R, Ivanenko A, O'Brien LM, Gozal D. Plasma C-reactive protein levels among children with sleep-disordered breathing. Pediatrics. 2004;113(6):e564-e569
79. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Capdevila OS, Tauman R, Gozal D. Plasma C-reactive protein in nonobese children with obstructive sleep apnea before and after adenotonsillectomy. J Clin Sleep Med. 2006;2(3):301-304 (Pubitemid 44299553)
80. Gozal D, Serpero LD, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Capdevila OS, Khalyfa A, Tauman R. Sleep measures and morning plasma TNF-alpha levels in children with sleep-disordered breathing. Sleep. 2010;33(3):319-325
81. Snow A, Gozal D, Valdes R Jr, Jortani SA. Urinary proteins for the diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Methods Mol Biol. 2010;641:223-241
82. Mahboubi S, Marsh RR, Potsic WP, Pasquariello PS. The lateral neck radiograph in adeno-tonsillar hyperplasia. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 1985;10(1):67-73 (Pubitemid 16242153)
83. Mason KP, O'Mahony E, Zurakowski D, Libenson MH. Effects of dexmedetomidine sedation on the EEG in children. Paediatr Anaesth. 2009;19(12):1175-1183
84. Iber C, American Academy of Sleep Medicine. The AASM manual for the scoring of sleep and associated events: rules, terminology and technical specifications. Westchester, IL: American Academy of Sleep Medicine; 2007
85. Huang YS, Guilleminault C, Li HY, Yang CM, Wu YY, Chen NH. Attention-deficit/hyperac-tivity disorder with obstructive sleep apnea: a treatment outcome study. Sleep Med 2007;8(1): 18-30 (Pubitemid 46044129)
86. O'Brien LM, Sitha S, Baur LA, Waters KA. Obesity increases the risk for persisting obstructive sleep apnea after treatment in children. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2006;70(9): 1555-1560 (Pubitemid 44209191)
87. Kheirandish L, Goldbart AD, Gozal D. Intranasal steroids and oral leukotriene modifier therapy in residual sleep-disordered breathing after tonsillectomy and adenoidectomy in children. Pediatrics. 2006;117(1):e61-e66 (Pubitemid 46061089)
88. Tauman R, O'Brien LM, Holbrook CR, Gozal D. Sleep pressure score: a new index of sleep disruption in snoring children. Sleep. 2004;27(2):274-278 (Pubitemid 44138837)
89. Rosen CL. Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children: controversies in diagnosis and treatment. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2004;51(1):153-167 (Pubitemid 38121628)
90. Emancipator JL, Storfer-Isser A, Taylor HG, et al. Variation of cognition and achievement with sleep-disordered breathing in full-term and preterm children. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2006;160(2):203-210 (Pubitemid 43213869)
91. Schechter MS. Technical report: diagnosis and management of childhood obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics. 2002;109(4):e69
92. Lipton AJ, Gozal D. Treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children: do we really know how? Sleep Med Rev. 2003;7(1):61-80 (Pubitemid 36188307)
93. Bhattacharjee R, et al. Adenotonsillectomy outcomes in treatment of OSA in children: A multicenter retrospective study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med; 2010;182(8):676-683
94. Guilleminault C, Nino-Murcia G, Heldt G, Baldwin R, Hutchinson D. Alternative treatment to tracheostomy in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: nasal continuous positive airway pressure in young children. Pediatrics. 1986;78(5):797-802 (Pubitemid 17170686)
95. Marcus CL, Ward SL, Mallory GB, et al. Use of nasal continuous positive airway pressure as treatment of childhood obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr. 1995;127(1):88-94
96. Marcus CL, Rosen G, Ward SL, et al. Adherence to and effectiveness of positive airway pressure therapy in children with obstructive sleep apnea Pediatrics. 2006;117(3):e442-e451 (Pubitemid 46063183)
97. O'Donnell AR, Bjornson CL, Bohn SG, Kirk VG. Compliance rates in children using noninvasive continuous positive airway pressure. Sleep. 2006;29(5):651-658
98. Brooks LJ, Strohl KP. Size and mechanical properties of the pharynx in healthy men and women. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;146(6):1394-1397
99. Slifer KJ, Kruglak D, Benore E, et al. Behavioral training for increasing preschool children's adherence with positive airway pressure: a preliminary study. Behav Sleep Med 2007;5(2): 147-175
100. Uong EC, Epperson M, Bathon SA, Jeffe DB. Adherence to nasal positive airway pressure therapy among school-aged children and adolescents with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics. 2007;120(5):e1203-e1211 (Pubitemid 350085515)
101. Kushida CA, Chediak A, Berry RB, et al. Clinical guidelines for the manual titration of positive airway pressure in patients with obstructive sleep apnea. J Clin Sleep Med 2008;4(2):157-171 (Pubitemid 352038657)
102. Stone JH, Seuthe B, Fiechter R, et al. Average volume-assured pressure support in obesity hypoventilation: A randomized crossover trial. Chest. 2006;130(3):815-821 (Pubitemid 44423614)
103. McGinley B, Halbower A, Schwartz AR, Smith PL, Patil SP, Schneider H. Effect of a high-flow open nasal cannula system on obstructive sleep apnea in children. Pediatrics. 2009; 124(1): 179-188
104. Powell NB. Contemporary surgery for obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Clin Exp Otorhinolaryngol. 2009;2(3): 107-114
105. Tucker Woodson B. Structural effectiveness of pharyngeal sleep apnea surgery. Sleep Med Rev. 2008;12(6):463-479
106. Holty JE, Guilleminault C. Maxillomandibular advancement for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep Med Rev. 2010;14(5):287-297
107. Kushida CA, Morgenthaler TI, Littner MR, et al. Practice parameters for the treatment of snoring and obstructive sleep apnea with oral appliances: an update for 2005. Sleep. 2006; 29(2):240-243 (Pubitemid 44019978)
108. Ferguson KA, Cartwright R, Rogers R, Schmidt-Nowara W. Oral appliances for snoring and obstructive sleep apnea: a review. Sleep. 2006;29(2):244-262 (Pubitemid 44019979)
109. Lim J, Lasserson TJ, Fleetham J, Wright J. Oral appliances for obstructive sleep apnoea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;1:CD004435
110. Pirelli P, Saponara M, Guilleminault C. Rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep. 2004;27(4):761-766 (Pubitemid 38823374)
111. Guilleminault C, Quo S, Huynh NT, Li K. Orthodontic expansion treatment and adenotonsillectomy in the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in prepubertal children [retracted in: Sleep. 2010;33(1):8]. Sleep. 2008;31(7):953-957 (Pubitemid 351956934)
112. Greenburg DL, Lettieri CJ, Eliasson AH. Effects of surgical weight loss on measures of obstructive sleep apnea: a meta-analysis. Am J Med. 2009;122(6):535-542
113. Aljadeff G, Gozal D, Bailey-Wahl SL, Burrell B, Keens TG, Ward SL. Effects of overnight supplemental oxygen in obstructive sleep apnea in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153(1):51-55 (Pubitemid 26026826)
114. Marcus CL, Carroll JL, Bamford O, Pyzik P, Loughlin GM. Supplemental oxygen during sleep in children with sleep-disordered breathing. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1995;152(4 Pt 1):1297-1301
115. Capdevila OS, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Dayyat E, Gozal D. Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea: complications, management, and long-term outcomes. Proc Am Thorac Soc. 2008;5(2):274-282 (Pubitemid 351237887)
116. Brouillette RT, Manoukian JJ, Ducharme FM, et al. Efficacy of fluticasone nasal spray for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea. J Pediatr. 2001;138(6):838-844 (Pubitemid 32545584)
117. Alexopoulos EI, Kaditis AG, Kalampouka E, et al. Nasal corticosteroids for children with snoring. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2004;38(2):161-167 (Pubitemid 38989738)
118. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Intranasal budesonide treatment for children with mild obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics. 2008;122(1):e149-e155
119. Zhang L, Mendoza-Sassi RA, César JA, Chadha NK. Intranasal corticosteroids for nasal airway obstruction in children with moderate to severe adenoidal hypertrophy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2008(3):CD006286
120. Dayyat E, Serpero LD, Kheirandish-Gozal L, et al. Leukotriene pathways and in vitro adeno-tonsillar cell proliferation in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest. 2009; 135(5): 1142-1149
121. Goldbart AD, Goldman JL, Veling MC, Gozal D. Leukotriene modifier therapy for mild sleep-disordered breathing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172(3):364-370 (Pubitemid 41026148)