Forgetting of emotional information is hard: An fMRI study of directed forgetting

Cerebral Cortex

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 2011, Pages 539-549

  Nowicka, Anna ^a   Marchewka, Artur ^a,b   Jednoróg, Katarzyna ^a   Tacikowski, Pawel ^a   Brechmann, André ^c  

^a NENCKI INSTITUTE OF EXPERIMENTAL BIOLOGY   (Poland)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LAUSANNE   (Switzerland)

^c LEIBNIZ INSTITUTE FOR NEUROBIOLOGY   (Germany)

Author keywords

encoding; inhibition; memory; recognition; retrieval

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; CLINICAL ARTICLE; EMOTION; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; HUMAN; INFORMATION; INFORMATION RETRIEVAL; LINGUAL GYRUS; MEMORY; NORMAL HUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECOGNITION; RIGHT HEMISPHERE;

ADULT; BRAIN MAPPING; EMOTIONS; HUMANS; IMAGE INTERPRETATION, COMPUTER-ASSISTED; MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; MEMORY;

EID: 79951846693     PISSN: 10473211     EISSN: 14602199     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhq117     Document Type: Article

References (120)

1. Anderson MC. 2003. Rethinking interference theory: executive control and the mechanisms of forgetting. J Mem Lang. 49:415-445. (Pubitemid 37431449)
2. Anderson MC, Green C. 2001. Suppressing unwanted memories by executive control. Nature. 410:366-369. (Pubitemid 32246052)
3. Anderson MC, Levy BJ. 2009. Suppressing unwanted memories. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 18:184-194.
4. Anderson MC, Neely JH. 1996. Interference and inhibition in memory retrieval. In: Bjork EL, Bjork RA, editors. Memory handbook of perception and cognition. San Diego (CA): Academia Press. p. 237-313.
5. Anderson MC, Ochsner KN, Kuhl B, Robertson E, Gabrieli SW, Glover GH, Gabrieli JDE. 2004. Neural systems underlying the suppression of unwanted memories. Science. 303:232-235. (Pubitemid 38057573)
6. Aron RA, Robbins TW, Poldrack RA. 2004. Inhibition and the right inferior frontal cortex. Trends Cogn Sci. 8:170-177. (Pubitemid 38429927)
7. Bar M, Kassam KS, Ghuman AS, Boshyan J, Schmid AM, Dale AM, Hamalainen MS, Marinkovic K, Schacter DL, Rosen BR, et al. 2006. Top-down facilitation of visual recognition. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 103:449-454. (Pubitemid 43122421)
8. Barnier AJ, Conway MA, Mayoh L, Speyer J, Avizmil O, Harris CB. 2007. Directed forgetting of recently recalled autobiographical memories. J Exp Psychol Gen. 136:301-322.
9. Basden B, Basden D, Gargano G. 1993. Directed forgetting in implicit and explicit memory tests: a comparison of methods. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 19:603-616.
10. Basden BH, Basden DR. 1996. Directed forgetting: further comparisons of the item and list methods. Memory. 4:633-653. (Pubitemid 126415598)
11. Basden BH, Basden DR. 1998. Directed forgetting: a contrast of methods and interpretations. In: Golding JM, MacLeod CM, editors. Intentional forgetting: interdisciplinary approaches. Mahwah (NJ): Erlbaum. p. 139-172.
12. Basden BH, Basden DR, Wright M. 2003. Part-list re-exposure and release of retrieval inhibition. in directed forgetting. Conscious Cogn. 12:354-375. (Pubitemid 36993811)
13. Bauml KH, Hanslmayr S, Pastotter B, Klimesch W. 2008. Oscillatory correlates of intentional updating in episodic memory. Neuroimage. 41:596-604.
14. Bergstrom ZM, Velmans M, de Fockert J, Richardson-Klavehn A. 2007. ERP evidence for successful voluntary avoidance of conscious recollection. Brain Res. 1151:119-133. (Pubitemid 46709876)
15. Bjork RA. 1972. Theoretical implications of directed forgetting. In: Melton AW, Martin E, editors. Coding processes in human memory. Washington (DC): Winston. p. 217-235.
16. Bjork RA. 1989. Retrieval inhibition as an adaptive mechanism in human memory. In: Roediger HL3rd, Craik FIM, editors. Varieties of memory and consciousness: essays in honour of Endel Tulving. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum. p. 309-330.
17. Bjork EL, Bjork RA, Anderson MC. 1998. Varieties of goal-directed forgetting. In: Golding JM, MacLeod CM, editors. Intentional forgetting: interdisciplinary approaches. Hillsdale (NJ): Erlbaum. p. 103-117.
18. Bradley MM, Greenwald MK, Petry MC, Lang PJ. 1992. Remembering pictures: pleasure and arousal in memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 18:379-390.
19. Britton JC, Taylor SF, Sudheimer KD, Liberzon I. 2006. Facial expressions and complex IAPS pictures: common and differential networks. Neuroimage. 31:906-919. (Pubitemid 43776660)
20. Bulevich JB, Roediger HL3rd, Balota DA, Butler AC. 2006. Failures to find suppression of episodic memories in the think/no-think paradigm. Mem Cogn. 34:1569-1577. (Pubitemid 46606654)
21. Carretie L, Albert J, Lopez-Mart?n S, Tapia M. 2009. Negative brain: an integrative review on the neural processes activated by unpleasant stimuli. Int J Psychophysiol. 71:57-63.
22. Carretie L, Hinojosa J, Albert J, Lopez-Mart?n S, De La Gandara BS, Igoa JM, Sotillo M. 2008. Modulation of ongoing cognitive processes by emotionally intense words. Psychophysiology. 45:188-196. (Pubitemid 351197139)
23. Carretie L, Martin-Loeches M, Hinojosa JA, Mercado F. 2001. Emotion and attention interaction studied through event-related potentials. J Cogn Neurosci. 13:1109-1128. (Pubitemid 33141148)
24. Cavanna AE, Trimble MR. 2006. The precuneus: a review of its functional anatomy and behavioural correlates. Brain. 129:564-583. (Pubitemid 43278220)
25. Christianson SA. 1992. The handbook of emotion and memory: research and theory. Hillsdale (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
26. Conway MA, Fthenaki A. 2003. Disruption of inhibitory control of memory following lesions to the frontal and temporal lobes. Cortex. 39:667-686. (Pubitemid 37351063)
27. Conway MA, Harries K, Noyes J, Racsma'ny M, Frankish CR. 2000. The disruption and dissolution of directed forgetting: inhibitory control of memory. J Mem Lang. 43:409-430.
28. Cottencin O, Gruat G, Thomas P, Devos P, Goudemand M, Consoli SM. 2008. Directed forgetting in depression. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 14:895-899.
29. Crinion J, Ashburner J, Leff A, Brett M, Price C, Friston K. 2007. Spatial normalization of lesioned brains: performance evaluation and impact on fMRI analyses. Neuroimage. 37:866-875. (Pubitemid 47248302)
30. Critchley HD. 2005. Neural mechanisms of autonomic, affective and cognitive integration. J Comp Neurol. 493:154-166. (Pubitemid 41636198)
31. Danion J, Kaufmann-Muller F, Grange D, Zimmermann M, Greth P. 1995. Affective valence of words, explicit and implicit memory in clinical depression. J Affect Disord. 34:227-234.
32. DePrince AP, Freyd JJ. 2004. Forgetting trauma stimuli. Psychol Sci. 15:488-492. (Pubitemid 38920095)
33. Depue BE, Banich MT, Curran T. 2006. Suppression of emotional and nonemotional content in memory: effects of repetition on cognitive control. Psychol Sci. 17:441-447. (Pubitemid 43657920)
34. Depue BE, Curran T, Banich MT. 2007. Prefrontal regions orchestrate suppression of emotional memories via a two-phase process. Science. 37:215-219. (Pubitemid 47076190)
35. Devilly GJ, Ciorciari J, Piesse A, Sherwell S, Zammit S, Cook F, Turton C. 2007. Dissociative tendencies and memory performance on directed-forgetting tasks. Psychol Sci. 18:212-217.
36. Dolcos F, Denkova E. 2008. Neural correlates of encoding emotional memories: a review of functional neuroimaging evidence. Cell Sci Rev. 5:78-122.
37. Dolcos F, LaBar KS, Cabeza R. 2004. Dissociable effects of arousal and valence on prefrontal activity indexing emotional evaluation and subsequent memory: an event-related fMRI study. Neuroimage. 23:64-74. (Pubitemid 39119436)
38. Dumont M. 2000. Directed forgetting and memory bias for emotion-congruent information in clinical depression. Curr Psychol Cogn. 19:171-188.
39. Elzinga BM, de Beurs E, Sergeant JA, van Dyck R, Phaf RH. 2000. Dissociative style and directed forgetting. Cognit Ther Res. 24: 279-295. (Pubitemid 30413851)
40. Epstein W. 1972. Mechanisms of directed forgetting. In: Bower GH, editor. The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 6. New York: Academic Press. p. 147-191.
41. Erickson KI, Colcombe SJ, Wadhwa R, Bherer L, Peterson MS, Scalf PE, Kim JS, Alvarado M, Kramer AF. 2007. Training-induced functional activation changes in dual-task processing: an fMRI study. Cereb Cortex. 17:192-204. (Pubitemid 44973907)
42. Fawcett JM, Taylor TL. 2008. Forgetting is effortful: evidence from reaction time probes in an item-method directed forgetting task. Mem Cogn. 36:1168-1181.
43. Fox E, Lester V, Russo R, Bowles RJ, Pichler A, Dutton K. 2000. Facial expressions of emotions: are angry faces detected more efficiently? Cogn Emot. 14:61092.
44. Fox E, Russo R, Bowles R, Dotton K. 2001. Do threatening stimuli draw or hold attention in visual attention in subclinical anxiety. J Exp Psychol Gen. 130:466-478.
45. Friston K. 2003. Introduction: experimental design and statistical parametric mapping. In: Frackowiak RSJ, Friston KJ, Frith C, Dolan R, Friston KJ, Price CJ, Zeki S, Ashburner J, Penny WD, editors. Human brain function. 2nd ed. Orlando (FL): Academic Press.
46. Gaig SB, Bowler DM. 2008. Free recall and forgetting of emotionally arousing words in autism spectrum disorder. Neuropsychologia. 46:2336-2343.
47. Gallese V, Keysers C, Rizzolatti G. 2004. A unifying view of the basis of social cognition. Trends Cogn Sci. 8:396-403. (Pubitemid 39179902)
48. Geiselman RE, Bjork RA, Fishman DL. 1983. Disrupted retrieval in directed forgetting: a link with posthypnotic amnesia. J Exp Psychol Gen. 112:58-72.
49. Gould RL, Brown RG, Owen AM, Ffytche DH, Howard RJ. 2003. fMRI BOLD response to increasing task difficulty during successful paired associates learning. Neuroimage. 20:1006-1019. (Pubitemid 37268119)
50. Hansen CH, Hansen RD. 1988. Finding the face in the crowd: an anger superiority effect. J Pers Soc Psychol. 54:917-924.
51. Hasher L, Zacks RT. 1988. Working memory, comprehension, and aging: a review and a new view. In: Bower GH, editor. The psychology of learning and motivation. Vol. 22. New York: Academic Press. p. 193-225.
52. Hauswald A, Kissler J. 2008. Directed forgetting of complex pictures in an item method paradigm. Memory. 16:797-809.
53. Hourihan KL, Ozubko JD, MacLeod CM. 2009. Directed forgetting of visual symbols: evidence for nonverbal selective rehearsal. Mem Cognit. 37:1059-1068.
54. Hsieh LT, Hung DL, Tzeng OJL, Lee JR, Cheng SK. 2009. An event-related potential investigation of the processing of remember/forget cues and item encoding in item-method directed forgetting. Brain Res. 1250:190-201.
55. Johnson HM. 1994. Processes of successful intentional forgetting. Psychol Bull. 116:274-292. (Pubitemid 24976772)
56. Joormann J, Hertel PT, Brozovich F, Gotlib IH. 2005. Remembering the good, forgetting the bad: intentional forgetting of emotional material in depression. J Abnorm Psychol. 114:640-648. (Pubitemid 41747000)
57. Joslyn SL, Oakes MA. 2005. Directed forgetting of autobiographical events. Mem Cognit. 33:577-587. (Pubitemid 46217472)
58. Kastner S, Ungerleider LG. 2000. Mechanisms of visual attention in the human cortex. Annu Rev Neurosci. 23:315-341. (Pubitemid 30350046)
59. Kelly AMC, Garavan H. 2005. Human functional neuroimaging of brain changes associated with practice. Cereb Cortex. 15:1089-1102. (Pubitemid 41373603)
60. Kensinger EA, Garoff-Eaton RJ, Schacter DL. 2006. Memory for specific visual details can be enhanced by negative arousing content. J Mem Lang. 54:99-112. (Pubitemid 43009872)
61. Kensinger EA, Garoff-Eaton RJ, Schacter DL. 2007. How negative emotion enhances the visual specificity of a memory. J Cogn Neurosci. 19:1872-1887. (Pubitemid 350043429)
62. Knauff M, Fangmeier T, Ruff CC, Johnson-Laird PN. 2003. Reasoning, models, and images: behavioral measures and cortical activity. J Cogn Neurosci. 15:559-573. (Pubitemid 36530090)
63. Korfine L, Hooley JM. 2000. Directed forgetting of emotional stimuli in borderline personality disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 109:214-221. (Pubitemid 30616918)
64. Koutstaal W, Wagner AD, Rotte M, Maril A, Buckner RL, Schacter DL. 2001. Perceptual specificity in visual object priming: fMRI evidence for a laterality difference in fusiform cortex. Neuropsychologia. 39:184-199. (Pubitemid 32036998)
65. Lancaster JL, Tordesillas-Gutierrez D, Martinez M, Salinas F, Evans A, Zilles K, Mazziotta JC, Fox PT. 2007. Bias between MNI and Talairach coordinates analyzed using the ICBM-152 brain template. Hum Brain Mapp. 28:1194-1205. (Pubitemid 350077483)
66. Lancaster JL, Woldorff MG, Parsons LM, Liotti M, Freitas CS, Rainey L, Kochunov PV, Nickerson D, Mikiten SA, Fox PT. 2000. Automated Talairach atlas labels for functional brain mapping. Hum Brain Mapp. 10:120-131. (Pubitemid 30456920)
67. Landau SM, Schumacher EH, Garavan H, Druzgal TJ, D'Esposito M. 2004. A functional MRI study of the influence of practice on component processes of working memory. Neuroimage. 22:211-221. (Pubitemid 38515827)
68. Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN. 1997. Motivated attention: affect, activation, and action. In: Lang P, Simons RF, Balaban MT, editors. Attention and orienting: sensory and motivational processes. Mahwah (NJ): Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. p. 97-135.
69. Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Cuthbert BN. 2001. International affective picture system (IAPS): affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. Technical Report A-8. Gainesville (FL): University of Florida.
70. Lang PJ, Bradley MM, Fitzsimmons JR, Cuthbert BN, Scott JD, Moulder B, Nangia V. 1998. Emotional arousal and activation of the visual cortex: an fMRI analysis. Psychophysiology. 35:199-210. (Pubitemid 28113704)
71. Levy BJ, Anderson MC. 2008. Individual differences in the suppression of unwanted memories: the executive deficit hypothesis. Acta Psychol. 127:623-635.
72. Li CR, Huang C, Constable RT, Sinha R. 2006. Imaging response inhibition in a stop-signal task: neural correlates independent of signal monitoring and post-response processing. J Neurosci. 26:186-192. (Pubitemid 43089531)
73. MacLeod CM. 1975. Long-term recognition and recall following directed forgetting. J Exp Psychol Hum. 104:271-279.
74. MacLeod CM. 1989. Directed forgetting affects both direct and indirect tests of memory. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 15:13-21.
75. MacLeod CM. 1998. Directed forgetting. In: Golding M, MacLeod CM, editors. Intentional forgetting: interdisciplinary approaches. Mah-wah (NJ): Erlbaum. p. 1-57.
76. MacLeod CM. 1999. The item and list methods of directed forgetting: test differences and the role of demand characteristics. Psychon Bull Rev. 6:123-129.
77. Marsolek CJ. 1999. Dissociable neural subsystems underlie abstract and specific object recognition. Psychol Sci. 10:111-118.
78. McNally RJ, Metzger LJ, Lasko NB, Clancy SA, Pitman RK. 1998. Directed forgetting of trauma cues in adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 107:596-601. (Pubitemid 28527573)
79. McNally RJ, Otto MW, Yap L, Pollack MH, Hornig CD. 1999. Is panic disorder linked to cognitive avoidance of threatening information? J Anxiety Disord. 13:335-348. (Pubitemid 29381524)
80. Mecklinger A, Parra M, Waldhauser GT. 2009. ERP correlates of intentional forgetting. Brain Res. 1255:132-147.
81. Mogg K, Bradley BP. 1998. A cognitive-motivational analysis of anxiety. Behav Res Ther. 36:809-848. (Pubitemid 28377131)
82. Moulds ML, Bryant RA. 2002. Directed forgetting in acute stress disorder. J Abnorm Psychol. 111:175-179. (Pubitemid 34150833)
83. Moulds ML, Bryant RA. 2005. An investigation of retrieval inhibition in acute stress disorder. J Trauma Stress. 18:233-236. (Pubitemid 46421991)
84. Mourao-Miranda J, Volchan E, Moll J, de Oliveira-Souza R, Oliveira L, Bramati I, Gattass R, Pessoa L. 2003. Contributions of stimulus valence and arousal to visual activation during emotional perception. Neuroimage. 20:1955-1963. (Pubitemid 37547972)
85. Myers LB, Derakshan N. 2004. To forget or not to forget: what do repressors forget and when do they forget? Cogn Emot. 18:495-511. (Pubitemid 38832531)
86. Neath I, Surprenant AM. 2003. Human memory. 2nd ed. Belmont (CA): Thompson Wadsworth Publishing.
87. Nowicka A, Jednorog K, Marchewka A, Brechmann A. 2009. Successfully overcoming the inhibitory impact of the "forget" instruction: a voxel-based morphometric study of directed forgetting. Psycho-physiology. 46:1008-1012.
88. Nowicka A, Jednorog K, Wypych M, Marchewka A. 2009. Reversed old/new effect for intentionally forgotten words: an ERP study of directed forgetting. Int J Psychophysiol. 71:97-102.
89. Ochsner KN. 2000. Are affective events richly recollected or simply familiar? The experience and process of recognizing feelings past. J Exp Psychol Gen. 129:242-326.
90. Ohman A, Flykt A, Esteves F. 2001. Emotion drives attention: detecting the snake in the grass. J Exp Psychol Gen. 130. p. 466-478. (Pubitemid 33597705)
91. Palomba D, Angrilli A, Mini A. 1997. Visual evoked potentials, heart rate responses and memory to emotional pictorial stimuli. Int J Psychophysiol. 27:55-67. (Pubitemid 27198888)
92. Pastotter B, Bauml K-H. 2010. Amount of postcue encoding predicts amount of directed forgetting. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem. 36: 54-65.
93. Payne BK, Corrigan E. 2007. Emotional constraints on intentional forgetting. J Exp Soc Psychol. 43:780-786.
94. Paz-Caballero MD, Menor J, Jimenez JM. 2004. Predictive validity of event-related potentials (ERP) in relation to directed forgetting effects. Clin Neurophysiol. 115:369-377. (Pubitemid 38117258)
95. Phelps EA, LaBar KS, Spencer DD. 1997. Memory for emotional words following unilateral temporal lobectomy. Brain Cogn. 35:85-109. (Pubitemid 27433289)
96. Picard N, Strick PL. 2001. Imaging the premotor areas. Curr Opin Neurobiol. 11:663-672. (Pubitemid 34014913)
97. Pourtois G, Dan E, Grandjean D, Sander D, Vuilleumier P. 2005. Enhanced extrastriate visual response to band-pass spatial frequency filtered fearful faces: time course and topographic evoked-potentials. Hum Brain Mapp. 26:65-79. (Pubitemid 41232556)
98. Pratto F, John OP. 1991. Automatic vigilance: the attention-grabbing power of negative social information. J Pers Soc Psychol. 61:380-391.
99. Quinlan CK, Taylor TL, Fawcett JM. 2010. Directed forgetting: comparing pictures and words. Can J Exp Psychol. 64:41-46.
100. Reber PJ, Siwiec RM, Gitelman DR, Parrish TB, Mesulam MM, Paller KA. 2002. Neural correlates of successful encoding identified using functional magnetic resonance imaging. J Neurosci. 22:9541-9548. (Pubitemid 35356195)
101. Reisberg D, Heuer F. 1992. Remembering the details of emotional events. In: Winograd E, Neiser U, editors. Affect and accuracy in recall: studies of 'flash-bulb' memory. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. p. 162-190.
102. Rodman HR, Consuelos MJ. 1994. Cortical projections to anterior inferior temporal cortex in infant macaque monkeys. Vis Neurosci. 11:119-133. (Pubitemid 2041669)
103. Rombouts SARB, Scheltens P, Machielsen WCM, Barkhof F, Hoogenraad FGC, Veltman DJ, Valk J, Witter MP. 1999. Parametric fMRI analysis of visual encoding in the human medial temporal lobe. Hippocampus. 9:637-643. (Pubitemid 30018854)
104. Rubin RC, Friendly M. 1986. Predicting which words get recalled: measures of free recall, availability, goodness, emotionality, and pronounciability for 925 nouns. Mem Cogn. 14:79-94.
105. Sahakyan L, Delaney PF. 2003. Can encoding differences explain the benefits of directed forgetting in the list method paradigm? J Mem Lang. 48:195-206. (Pubitemid 36177483)
106. Sahakyan L, Kelley CM. 2002. A contextual change account of the directed forgetting effect. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 28:1064-1072.
107. Sheard ED, MacLeod CM. 2005. List method directed forgetting: return of the selective rehearsal account. In: Ohta N, MacLeod CM, Uttl B, editors. Dynamic cognitive processes. Tokyo (Japan): Springer. p. 219-248.
108. Shimamura AP. 1994. Memory and frontal lobe function. In: Gazzaniga MS, editor. The cognitive neurosciences. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press. p. 803-815.
109. Simons JS, Koutstaal W, Prince S, Wagner AD, Schacter DL. 2003. Neural mechanisms of visual object priming: evidence for perceptual and semantic distinctions in fusiform cortex. Neuroimage. 19:613-626. (Pubitemid 36918207)
110. Talmi D, Anderson AK, Riggs L, Caplan JB, Moscovitch M. 2008. Immediate memory consequences of the effect of emotion on attention to pictures. Learn Mem. 15:172-182. (Pubitemid 351439147)
111. Tolin DF, Hamlin C, Foa EB. 2002. Directed forgetting in obsessive-compulsive disorder: replication and extension. Behav Res Ther. 40:793-803. (Pubitemid 34556746)
112. Ullsperger M, Mecklinger A, Muller U. 2000. An electrophysiological test of directed forgetting: the role of retrieval inhibition. J Cogn Neurosci. 12:924-940. (Pubitemid 32014489)
113. Van Hooff JC, Whitaker TA, Ford RM. 2009. Directed forgetting in direct and indirect tests of memory: Seeking evidence of retrieval inhibition using electrophysiological measures. Brain Cogn. 71:153-164.
114. Vuilleumier P, Armony JL, Driver J, Dolan J. 2003. Distinct spatial frequency sensitivities for processing faces and emotional expressions. Nat Neurosci. 6:624-631. (Pubitemid 36648804)
115. Vuilleumier P, Driver J. 2007. Modulation of visual processing by attention and emotion: windows on causal interactions between human brain regions. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 362:837-855. (Pubitemid 47056814)
116. Wilhelm S, McNally RJ, Baer L, Florin I. 1996. Directed forgetting in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Behav Res Ther. 34:633-641. (Pubitemid 26316907)
117. Wylie GR, Foxe JJ, Taylor TL. 2008. Forgetting as an active process: an fMRI investigation of item-method-directed forgetting. Cereb Cortex. 18:670-682. (Pubitemid 351264238)
118. Zacks RT, Hasher L. 1994. Directed ignoring: inhibitory regulation of working memory. In: Dagenbach D, Carr TH, editors. Inhibitory mechanisms in attention, memory, and language. New York: Academic Press. p. 241-264.
119. Zacks RT, Radvansky G, Hasher L. 1996. Studies of directed forgetting in older adults. J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn. 22:143-156. (Pubitemid 126491304)
120. Zoellner LA, Sacks MB, Foa EB. 2003. Directed forgetting following mood induction in chronic posttraumatic stress disorder patients. J Abnorm Psychol. 112:508-514. (Pubitemid 36959376)