Consequences of adult and juvenile movement for marine protected areas

Biological Conservation

Volumn 144, Issue 2, 2011, Pages 692-702

  Grüss, Arnaud ^a   Kaplan, David M ^a   Guénette, Sylvie ^b   Roberts, Callum M ^c   Botsford, Louis W ^d  

^a INSTITUT DE RECHERCHE POUR LE DÉVELOPPEMENT   (France)

^b UNIVERSITÉ EUROPÉENNE DE BRETAGNE   (France)

^c UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Density dependent movement; Density independent movement; Dynamic MPAs; Marine protected areas (MPAs); Spillover; Targeted MPAs

Indexed keywords

ADULT; AGE STRUCTURE; DENSITY DEPENDENCE; HOME RANGE; JUVENILE; MARINE PARK; MOBILITY; ONTOGENY; POLYMORPHISM;

EID: 79451472921     PISSN: 00063207     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2010.12.015     Document Type: Review

References (129)

1. Abesamis R.A., Russ G.R. Density-dependent spillover from a marine reserve: long-term evidence. Ecological Applications 2005, 15:1798-1812.
2. Afonso P., Fontes J., Holland K.N., Santos R.S. Multi-scale patterns of habitat use in a highly mobile reef fish, the white trevally Pseudocaranx dentex, and their implications for marine reserve design. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2009, 381:273-286.
3. Apostolaki P., Milner-Gulland E.J., McAllister M.K., Kirkwood G.P. Modelling the effects of establishing a marine reserve for mobile fish species. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2002, 59:405-415.
4. Appeldoorn, R.S., Recksiek, C.W., Hill, R.L., Pagan, F.E., Dennis, G.D., 1997. Marine protected areas and reef fish movements: the role of habitat in controlling ontogenetic migration. In: Proceedings of the 8th International Coral Reef Symposium, pp. 1917-1922.
5. Ashe E., Noren D.P., Williams R. Animal behaviour and marine protected areas: incorporating behavioural data into the selection of marine protected areas for an endangered killer whale population. Animal Conservation 2010, 13:196-203.
6. Attwood C.G., Bennett B.A. Modelling the effect of marine reserves on the recreational shore-fishery of the south-western cape, South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 1995, 16:227-240.
7. Barrett N.S. Short-and long-term movement patterns of six temperate reef fishes (Families Labridae and Monacanthidae). Marine and freshwater research 1995, 46:853-860.
8. Baskett M.L., Micheli F., Levin S.A. Designing marine reserves for interacting species: Insights from theory. Biological Conservation 2007, 137:163-179.
9. Beattie A., Sumaila U., Christensen V., Pauly D. A model for the bioeconomic evaluation of MPA size and placement in the Northern Sea. Natural Resource Modeling 2002, 15:413-437.
10. Beets J., Friedlander A. Evaluation of a conservation strategy: a spawning aggregation closure for red hind, Epinephelus guttatus, in the US Virgin Islands. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1999, 55:91-98.
11. Bellquist L.F., Lowe C.G., Caselle J.E. Fine-scale movement patterns, site fidelity, and habitat selection of ocean whitefish (Caulolatilus princeps). Fisheries Research 2008, 91:325-335.
12. Beverton R.J.H., Holt S.J. On the Dynamics of Exploited Fish Populations 1957, Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, London.
13. Birkeland C., Dayton P.K. The importance in fishery management of leaving the big ones. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2005, 20:356-358.
14. Black, R., 2009. Palau Pioneers 'Shark Sanctuary'. BBC NEWS. <>. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/science/nature/8272508.stm.
15. Block B.A., Teo S.L., Walli A., Boustany A., Stokesbury M.J., Farwell C.J., Weng K.C., Dewar H., Williams T.D. Electronic tagging and population structure of Atlantic bluefin tuna. Nature 2005, 434:1121-1127.
16. Blyth-Skyrme R.E., Kaiser M.J., Hiddink J.G., Edwards-Jones G., Hart P.J.B. Conservation benefits of temperate marine protected areas: variation among fish species. Conservation Biology 2006, 20:811-820.
17. Botha L. Migrations and spawning behaviour of the Cape hakes. South African Shipping News and Fishing Industry Review 1973, 28:62-63.
18. Botsford L.W., Brumbaugh D.R., Grimes C., Kellner J.B., Largier J., O'Farrell M.R., Ralston S., Soulanille E., Wespestad V. Connectivity, sustainability, and yield: bridging the gap between conventional fisheries management and marine protected areas. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 2009, 19:69-95.
19. Bradbury I.R., Laurel B.J., Robichaud D., Rose G.A., Snelgrove P.V.R., Gregory R.S., Cote D., Windle M.J.S. Discrete spatial dynamics in a marine broadcast spawner: re-evaluating scales of connectivity and habitat associations in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua L.) in coastal Newfoundland. Fisheries Research 2008, 91:299-309.
20. Caddy, J., Seijo, J., 1998. Application of a spatial model to explore rotating harvest strategies for sedentary species. In: Jamieson, G., Campbell, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the North Pacific Symposium on Invertebrate Stock Assessment and Management. Canadian Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vol. 125, pp. 359-365.
21. Cartamil D.P., Lowe C.G. Diel movement patterns of ocean sunfish Mola mola off southern California. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2004, 266:245-253.
22. Claudet J., Guidetti P. Improving assessments of marine protected arenas. Aquatic Conservation 2010, 20:239-242.
23. Crawford R.J.M., Shannon L.V., Pollock D. The Benguela ecosystem IV. The major fish and invertebrate resources. Oceanography and Marine Biology Annual Review 1987, 25:353-505.
24. Dawson M., Grosberg R., Botsford L. Connectivity in marine protected areas. Science 2006, 313:43-44.
25. DeMartini E.E. Modeling the potential of fishery reserves for managing Pacific coral reef fishes. Fishery Bulletin 1993, 91:414-427.
26. Denny C.M., Babcock R.C. Do partial marine reserves protect reef fish assemblages?. Biological Conservation 2004, 116:119-129.
27. Diamond S.L., Kleisner K.M., Duursma D.E., Wang Y. Designing marine reserves to reduce bycatch of mobile species: a case study using juvenile red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus). Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2010, 67:1335-1349.
28. Dorn, M.W., 1995. The Effects of Age Composition and Oceanographic Conditions on the Annual Migration of Pacific Whiting, Merluccius productus. California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations Report.
29. Edwards C.T.T., Rademeyer R.A., Butterworth D.S., Plaganyi E.E. Investigating the consequences of marine protected areas for the South African deep-water hake (Merluccius paradoxus) resource. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2009, 66:72-81.
30. Edwards H.J., Elliott I.A., Pressey R.L., Mumby P.J. Incorporating ontogenetic dispersal, ecological processes and conservation zoning into reserve design. Biological Conservation 2010, 143:457-470.
31. Eggleston D.B., Parsons D.M. Disturbance-induced 'spill-in' of Caribbean spiny lobster to marine reserves. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2008, 371:213-220.
32. Field, J.G., Moloney, C.L., du Buisson, L., Jarre, A., Stroemme, T., Lipinski, M.R., Kainge, P., 2008. Exploring the BOFFFF Hypothesis using a model of Southern African deepwater hake (Merluccius paradoxus). In: Fisheries for Global Welfare and Environment, 5th World Fisheries Congress, pp. 17-26.
33. Fontaine M. Migration mechanisms of amphihaline fishes (Pisces, Teleostei). Cahiers de Biologie Marine 1996, 37:169-179.
34. Fonteneau, A., Soubrier, P., 1996. Interactions Between Tuna Fisheries: A Global Review with Specific Examples from the Atlantic Ocean. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.
35. Freeman D.J., MacDiarmid A.B., Taylor R.B. Habitat patches that cross marine reserve boundaries: consequences for the lobster Jasus edwardsii. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2009, 388:159-167.
36. Game E.T., Grantham H.S., Hobday A.J., Pressey R.L., Lombard A.T., Beckley L.E., Gjerde K., Bustamante R., Possingham H.P., Richardson A.J. Pelagic protected areas: the missing dimension in ocean conservation. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2009, 24:360-369.
37. Gell F.R., Roberts C.M. Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2003, 18:448-455.
38. Gerber L.R., Botsford L.W., Hastings A., Possingham H.P., Gaines S.D., Palumbi S.R., Andelman S. Population models for marine reserve design: a retrospective and prospective synthesis. Ecological Applications 2003, 13:47-64.
39. Gerber L.R., Heppell S.S., Ballantyne F., Sala E. The role of dispersal and demography in determining the efficacy of marine reserves. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2005, 62:863-871.
40. Gibson R.N. Impact of habitat quality and quantity on the recruitment of juvenile flatfishes. Netherlands Journal of Sea Research 1994, 32:191-206.
41. Goñi R., Hilborn R., Díaz D., Mallol S., Adlerstein S. Net contribution of spillover from a marine reserve to fishery catches. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2010, 400:233-243.
42. Guénette S., Pitcher T.J. An age-structured model showing the benefits of marine reserves in controlling overexploitation. Fisheries Research 1999, 39:295-303.
43. Guénette S., Pitcher T.J., Walters C.J. The potential of marine reserves for the management of northern cod in Newfoundland. Bulletin of Marine Science 2000, 66:831-852.
44. Halpern, B., Duffy, J.E., 2008. Marine reserves. In: Cutler, J. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth. Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington, DC.
45. Hardman E., Green J.M., Desiré M.S., Perrine S. Movement of sonically tagged bluespine unicornfish, Naso unicornis, in relation to marine reserve boundaries in Rodrigues, western Indian Ocean. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 2010, 20:357-361.
46. Harmelin-Vivien M., Le Diréach L., Bayle-Sempere J., Charbonnel E., García-Charton J.A., Ody D., Pérez-Ruzafa A., Reñones O., Sánchez-Jerez P., Valle C. Gradients of abundance and biomass across reserve boundaries in six Mediterranean marine protected areas: evidence of fish spillover?. Biological Conservation 2008, 141:1829-1839.
47. Hart D.R. Yield-and biomass-per-recruit analysis for rotational fisheries, with an application to the Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus). Fishery Bulletin 2003, 101:44-57.
48. Heupel M.R., Simpfendorfer C.A., Fitzpatrick R. Large-scale movement and reef fidelity of grey reef sharks. PLoS ONE 2010, 5(3):e9650.
49. Hilborn R., Micheli F., De Leo G.A. Integrating marine protected areas with catch regulation. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2006, 63:642-649.
50. Hixon M.A., Carr M.H. Synergistic predation, density dependence, and population regulation in marine fish. Science 1997, 277:946-949.
51. Hixon M. Population dynamics of coral-reef fishes: controversial concepts and hypotheses. Austral Ecology 1998, 23:192-201.
52. Holland D.S. A Bioeconomic model of marine sanctuaries on Georges Bank. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2000, 57:1307-1319.
53. Holland D.S., Brazee R.J. Marine reserves for fisheries management. Marine Resource Economics 2000, 11:157-172.
54. Horwood J., O'Brien C., Darby C. North Sea cod recovery?. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2006, 63:961-968.
55. Horwood J.W., Nichols J.H., Milligan S. Evaluation of closed areas for fish stock conservation. Journal of Applied Ecology 1998, 35:893-903.
56. Hyrenbach K.D., Forney K.A., Dayton P.K. Marine protected areas and ocean basin management. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 2000, 10:437-458.
57. Jaworski A., Solmundsson J., Ragnarsson S.A. The effect of area closures on the demersal fish community off the east coast of Iceland. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2006, 63:897-911.
58. Jensen O.P., Ortega-Garcia S., Martell S.J., Ahrens R.N., Domeier M.L., Walters C.J., Kitchell J.F. Local management of a "highly migratory species": the effects of long-line closures and recreational catch-and-release for Baja California striped marlin fisheries. Progress in Oceanography 2010, 86:176-186.
59. Kaplan D.M., Chassot E., Grüss A., Fonteneau A. Pelagic MPAs: the devil is in the details. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2010, 25:62-63.
60. Kellner J.B., Tetreault I., Gaines S.D., Nisbet R.M. Fishing the line near marine reserves in single and multispecies fisheries. Ecological Applications 2007, 17:1039-1054.
61. Kellner J., Nisbet R., Gaines S. Spillover from marine reserves related to mechanisms of population regulation. Theoretical Ecology 2008, 1:117-127.
62. Kelly C.J., Codling E.A., Rogan E. The Irish Sea cod recovery plan: some lessons learned. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2006, 63:600-610.
63. Kerwath S.E., Thorstad E.V., Naesje T.O., Cowley P.D., Okland F., Wilke C., Attwood C.G. Crossing invisible boundaries: the effectiveness of the Langebaan Lagoon marine protected area as a harvest refuge for a migratory fish species in South Africa. Conservation Biology 2009, 23:653-661.
64. Kerwath S.E., Götz A., Attwood C.G., Sauer W.H.H. The effect of marine protected areas on an exploited population of sex-changing temperate reef fish: an individual-based model. African Journal of Marine Science 2008, 30:337-350.
65. Kooyman G.L., Kooyman T.G., Horning M., Kooyman C.A. Penguin dispersal after fledging. Nature 1996, 383:397.
66. Kramer D.L., Chapman M.R. Implications of fish home range size and relocation for marine reserve function. Environmental Biology of Fishes 1999, 55:65-79.
67. Le Quesne W.J.F., Codling E.A. Managing mobile species with MPAs: the effects of mobility, larval dispersal, and fishing mortality on closure size. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2009, 66:122-131.
68. Lear, W., Parsons, L., 1993. History and management of the fishery for Northern cod in NAFO divisions 2J, 3K and 3L. Perspectives on Canadian marine fisheries management. In: Parsons, L.S., Lear, W.H. (Eds.), Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vol. 226, pp. 55-90.
69. Lehodey P., Bertignac M., Hampton J., Lewis A., Picaut J. El Nino Southern oscillation and tuna in the western Pacific. Nature 1997, 389:715-718.
70. Lindholm J.B., Auster P.J., Ruth M., Kaufman L. Modeling the effects of fishing and implications for the design of marine protected areas: juvenile fish responses to variations in seafloor habitat. Conservation Biology 2001, 15:424-437.
71. Little L.R., Punt A.E., Mapstone B.D., Begg G.A., Goldman B., Ellis N. Different responses to area closures and effort controls for sedentary and migratory harvested species in a multispecies coral reef linefishery. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2009, 66:1931-1941.
72. Lowe C.G., Topping D.T., Cartamil D.P., Papastamatiou Y.P. Movement patterns, home range, and habitat utilization of adult kelp bass Paralabrax clathratus in a temperate no-take marine reserve. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2003, 256:205-216.
73. Lowe C.G., Bray R.N. Fish movement and activity patterns. The Ecology of California Marine Fishes: California and Adjacent Waters 2006, 524-553. University of California Press, Berkeley, California. L.G. Allen, M.H. Horn, D.J. Pondella (Eds.).
74. Mace G.M., Harvey P.H., Clutton-Brock T.H. Vertebrate home-range size and energetic requirements. The Ecology of Animal Movement 1983, 32-53. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. P.J. Swingtang, P.J. Greenwood (Eds.).
75. Martell S.J., Essington T.E., Lessard B., Kitchell J.F., Walters C.J., Boggs C.H. Interactions of productivity, predation risk, and fishing effort in the efficacy of marine protected areas for the central Pacific. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2005, 62:1320-1336.
76. McCormick M.I., Makey L.J. Post-settlement transition in coral reef fishes: overlooked complexity in niche shifts. Marine Ecology Progress Series 1997, 153:247-257.
77. McKeown B.A. Fish Migration 1984, Croom Helm, London.
78. Meyer C.G., Holland K.N. Movement patterns, home range size and habitat utilization of the bluespine unicornfish, Naso unicornis (Acanthuridae) in a Hawaiian marine reserve. Environmental Biology of Fishes 2005, 73:201-210.
79. Meyer C.G., Papastamatiou Y.P., Holland K.N. A multiple instrument approach to quantifying the movement patterns and habitat use of tiger (Galeocerdo cuvier) and Galapagos sharks (Carcharhinus galapagensis) at French Frigate Shoals, Hawaii. Marine Biology 2010, 157:1857-1868.
80. Moffitt E.A., Botsford L.W., Kaplan D.M., O'Farrell M. Marine reserve networks for species that move within a home range. Ecological Applications 2009, 19:1835-1847.
81. Murawski S.A., Brown R., Lai H.L., Rago P.J., Hendrickson L. Large-scale closed areas as a fishery-management tool in temperate marine systems: the Georges Bank experience. Bulletin of Marine Science 2000, 66:775-798.
82. Murawski S.A., Wigley S.E., Fogarty M.J., Rago P.J., Mountain D.G. Effort distribution and catch patterns adjacent to temperate MPAs. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2005, 62:1150-1167.
83. Nemeth R.S. Population characteristics of a recovering US Virgin Islands red hind spawning aggregation following protection. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2005, 286:81-97.
84. Norse E.A., Crowder L.B., Gjerde K., Hyrenbach D., Roberts C.M., Safina C., Soule M.E. Place-based ecosystem management in the open ocean. Marine Conservation Biology: The Science of Maintaining the Sea's Biodiversity 2005, 302-325. Island Press, Washington, DC. E.A. Norse, L.B. Crowder (Eds.).
85. Pala C. Protecting the last great tuna stocks. Science 2009, 324:1133.
86. Palumbi S.R. Marine reserves and ocean neighborhoods: the spatial scale of marine populations and their management. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 2004, 29:31-68.
87. Papastamatiou Y.P., Lowe C.G., Caselle J.E., Friedlander A.M. Scale-dependent effects of habitat on movements and path structure of reef sharks at a predator-dominated atoll. Ecology 2009, 90:996-1008.
88. Parsons D.M., Morrison M.A., Slater M.J. Responses to marine reserves: decreased dispersion of the sparid Pagrus auratus (snapper). Biological Conservation 2010, 143:2039-2048.
89. Pastoors M.A., Rijnsdorp A.D., Van Beek F.A. Effects of a partially closed area in the North Sea (" plaice box") on stock development of plaice. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2000, 57:1014-1022.
90. Pelletier D., Magal P. Dynamics of a migratory population under different fishing effort allocation schemes in time and space. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 1996, 53:1186-1199.
91. Pelletier D., Mahévas S. Spatially explicit fisheries simulation models for policy evaluation. Fish and Fisheries 2005, 6:307-349.
92. Pichegru L., Grémillet D., Crawford R., Ryan P. Marine no-take zone rapidly benefits endangered penguin. Biology Letters 2010, 10.1098/rsbl.2009.0913.
93. Polacheck T. Year around closed areas as a management tool. Natural Resource Modeling 1990, 4:327-354.
94. Roberts C.M., Sargant H. Fishery benefits of fully protected marine reserves: why habitat and behavior are important. Natural Resource Modeling 2002, 15:487-508.
95. Roberts C.M., Hawkins J.P., Gell F.R. The role of marine reserves in achieving sustainable fisheries. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 2005, 360:123-132.
96. Roberts C., Bohnsack J.A., Gell F., Hawkins J., Goodridge R. Effects of marine reserves on adjacent fisheries. Science 2001, 294:1920-1923.
97. Rodwell L.D., Barbier E.B., Roberts C.M., McClanahan T.R. The importance of habitat quality for marine reserve-fishery linkages. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2003, 60:171-181.
98. Rooker J.R., Secor D.H., De Metrio G., Schloesser R., Block B.A., Neilson J.D. Natal homing and connectivity in Atlantic bluefin tuna populations. Science 2008, 322:742.
99. Rosenberg R., Nilsson H.C., Hollertz K., Hellman B. Density-dependent migration in an Amphiura filiformis (Amphiuridae, Echinodermata) infaunal population. Marine Ecology Progress Series 1997, 159:121-131.
100. Russ G.R., Alcala A.C., Maypa A.P. Spillover from marine reserves: the case of Naso vlamingii at Apo Island, the Philippines. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2003, 264:15-20.
101. Russ G.R., Alcala A.C. Marine reserves: long-term protection is required for full recovery of predatory fish populations. Oecologia 2004, 138:622-627.
102. Russ G.R., Alcala A.C., Maypa A.P., Calumpong H.P., White A.T. Marine reserve benefits local fisheries. Ecological Applications 2004, 14:597-606.
103. Sadovy D.M.Y., Cornish A., Domeier M., Colin P.L., Russell M., Lindeman K.C. A global baseline for spawning aggregations of reef fishes. Conservation Biology 2008, 22:1233-1244.
104. Sadovy Y., Domeier M. Are aggregation-fisheries sustainable? Reef fish fisheries as a case study. Coral Reefs 2005, 24:254-262.
105. Sadovy, Y., Eklund, A.M., 1999. Synopsis of biological data on the Nassau grouper, Epinephelus striatus (Bloch, 1792), and the jewfish, E. itajara (Lichtenstein, 1822). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Technical Report, National Marine Fisheries Service.
106. Sale P.F., Cowen R.K., Danilowicz B.S., Jones G.P., Kritzer J.P., Lindeman K.C., Planes S., Polunin N.V., Russ G.R., Sadovy Y.J., et al. Critical science gaps impede use of no-take fishery reserves. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 2005, 20:74-80.
107. Sale P.F. Reef fishes and other vertebrates: a comparison of social structures. Contrasts in Behavior 1978, 313-346. Wiley, New York, USA. E.S. Reese, F.J. Lighter (Eds.).
108. Salomon A.K., Waller N.P., McIlhagga C., Yung R.L., Walters C. Modeling the trophic effects of marine protected area zoning policies: a case study. Aquatic Ecology 2002, 36:85-95.
109. Sanchez Lizaso J., Goni R., Renones O., Charton J.A.G., Galzin R., Bayle J.T., Jerez P.S., Ruzafa A.P., Ramos A.A. Density dependence in marine protected populations: a review. Environmental Conservation 2000, 27:144-158.
110. Schofield G., Hobson V.J., Lilley M.K., Katselidis K.A., Bishop C.M., Brown P., Hays G.C. Inter-annual variability in the home range of breeding turtles: implications for current and future conservation management. Biological Conservation 2010, 143:722-730.
111. Shears N.T., Grace R.V., Usmar N.R., Kerr V., Babcock R.C. Long-term trends in lobster populations in a partially protected vs. no-take marine park. Biological Conservation 2006, 132:222-231.
112. Shepherd S., Brook J., Xiao Y. Environmental and fishing effects on the abundance, size and sex ratio of the blue-throated wrasse, Notolabrus tetricus, on South Australian coastal reefs. Fisheries Management and Ecology 2010, 17:209-220.
113. Sims D.W., Southall E.J., Humphries N.E., Hays G.C., Bradshaw C.J., Pitchford J.W., James A., Ahmed M.Z., Brierley A.S., Hindell M.A., et al. Scaling laws of marine predator search behaviour. Nature 2008, 451:1098-1102.
114. Sink, K., Attwood, C., 2008. Guidelines for Offshore Marine Protected Areas in South Africa. SANBI Biodiversity Series 9. South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
115. Starr R.M., O'Connell V., Ralston S. Movements of lingcod (Ophiodon elongatus) in southeast Alaska: potential for increased conservation and yield from marine reserves. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2004, 61:1083-1094.
116. STECF (Scientific, Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries), 2003. Meeting on Cod Assessment and Technical Measures 28 April-7 May 2003, Brussels, Belgium.
117. Stobart B., Warwick R., González C., Mallol S., Diaz D., Reñones O., Goñi R. Long-term and spillover effects of a marine protected area on an exploited fish community. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2009, 384:47-60.
118. Sumaila U.R., Zeller D., Watson R., Alder J., Pauly D. Potential costs and benefits of marine reserves in the high seas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2007, 345:305-310.
119. Topping D.T., Lowe C.G., Caselle J.E. Site fidelity and seasonal movement patterns of adult California sheephead Semicossyphus pulcher (Labridae): an acoustic monitoring study. Marine Ecology Progress Series 2006, 326:257-267.
120. Topping D.T., Lowe C.G., Caselle J.E. Home range and habitat utilization of adult California sheephead, Semicossyphus pulcher (Labridae), in a temperate no-take marine reserve. Marine Biology 2005, 147:301-311.
121. Tupper M.H. Spillover of commercially valuable reef fishes from marine protected areas in Guam, Micronesia. Fishery Bulletin 2007, 105:527-537.
122. Van Keeken O.A., Van Hoppe M., Grift R.E., Rijnsdorp A.D. Changes in the spatial distribution of North Sea plaice (Pleuronectes platessa) and implications for fisheries management. Journal of Sea Research 2007, 57:187-197.
123. Walters C. Impacts of dispersal, ecological interactions, and fishing effort dynamics on efficacy of marine protected areas: how large should protected areas be?. Bulletin of Marine Science 2000, 66:745-757.
124. Walters C.J., Hilborn R., Parrish R. An equilibrium model for predicting the efficacy of marine protected areas in coastal environments. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 2007, 64:1009-1018.
125. West C.D., Dytham C., Righton D., Pitchford J.W. Preventing overexploitation of migratory fish stocks: the efficacy of marine protected areas in a stochastic environment. ICES Journal of Marine Science 2009, 66:1919-1930.
126. Williams I.D., Walsh W.J., Claisse J.T., Tissot B.N., Stamoulis K.A. Impacts of a Hawaiian marine protected area network on the abundance and fishery sustainability of the yellow tang, Zebrasoma flavescens. Biological Conservation 2009, 142:1066-1073.
127. Willis T.J., Millar R.B., Babcock R.C. Protection of exploited fish in temperate regions: high density and biomass of snapper Pagrus auratus (Sparidae) in northern New Zealand marine reserves. Journal of Applied Ecology 2003, 40:214-227.
128. Wimpenny R.S. The Plaice 1953, Edward Arnold, London.
129. Worm B., Hilborn R., Baum J.K., Branch T.A., Collie J.S., Costello C., Fogarty M.J., Fulton E.A., Hutchings J.A., Jennings S., et al. Rebuilding global fisheries. Science 2009, 325:578.