Neighborhood change and crime in the modern metropolis

Crime and Justice

Volumn 39, Issue , 2010, Pages 441-502

  Kirk, David S ^a,b   Laub, John H ^c  

^a Department of Sociology ^*  (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79251637371     PISSN: 01923234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1086/652788     Document Type: Article

References (204)

1. Alba, Richard D., John R. Logan, and Paul E. Bellair. 1994. "Living with Crime: The Implications of Racial/Ethnic Differences in Suburban Location." Social Forces 73: 395-434.
2. Atkinson, Rowland. 2000. "The Hidden Cost of Gentrification: Displacement in Central London." Journal of 'Housing and the Built Environment 15: 307-26.
3. Baller, Robert D., Luc Anselin, Steven F. Messner, Glenn Deane, and Darnell F. Hawkins. 2001. "Structural Covariates of U.S. County Homicide Rates: Incorporating Spatial Effects." Criminology 39: 561-90.
4. Berry, Brian J. L. 1985. "Islands of Decay in Seas of Renewal." In The New Urban Reality, edited by Paul J. Peterson. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
5. Blumstein, Alfred, and Joel Wallman, eds. 2005. The Crime Drop in America. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
6. Bottoms, Anthony E., and Paul Wiles. 1986. "Housing Tenure and Residential Community Crime Careers in Britain." In Communities and Crime, edited by Albert J. Reiss Jr. and Michael Tonry. Vol. 8 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
7. Briggs, Xavier de Souza, and Peter Dreier. 2008. "Memphis Murder Mystery? No, Just Mistaken Identity." Sbelterforce: The Journal of Affordable Housing and Community Building, July 22. http://www.shelterforce.org/ article/special/1043.
8. Brooks-Gunn, Jeanne, Greg J. Duncan, Pamela K. Klebanov, and Naomi Sealand. 1993. "Do Neighborhoods Influence Child and Adolescent Development?" American Journal of Sociology 99: 353-95.
9. Burgess, Ernest W. 1916. "Juvenile Delinquency in a Small City." Journal of the American Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology 6: 724-28.
10. -. 1967. "The Growth of the City: An Introduction to a Research Project." In The City, edited by Robert E. Park, Ernest W. Burgess, and Roderick D. McKenzie. Chicago: University Chicago of Press. (Originally published 1925.)
11. Bursik, Robert J., Jr. 1988. "Social Disorganization and Theories of Crime and Delinquency: Problems and Prospects." Criminology 26: 519-51.
12. -. 1989. "Political Decisionmaking and Ecological Models of Delinquency: Conflict and Consensus." In Theoretical Integration in the Study of Deviance and Crime: Problems and Prospects, edited by Steven F. Messner, Marvin D. Krohn, and Allen E. Liska. Albany: State University of New York Press.
13. Bursik, Robert J., Jr., and Harold G. Grasmick. 1993. Neighborhoods and Crime: The Dimensions of Effective Community Control. New York: Lexington Books.
14. Bursik, Robert J., Jr., and Jim Webb. 1982. "Community Change and Patterns of Delinquency." American Journal of Sociology 88: 24-42.
15. Butcher, Kristin F., and Anne M. Piehl. 1998. "Cross-City Evidence on the Relationship between Immigration and Crime." Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 17: 457-93.
16. Byrne, James M., and Robert J. Sampson. 1986. "Key Issues in the Social Ecology of Crime." In The Social Ecology of Crime, edited by James M. Byrne and Robert J. Sampson. New York: Springer.
17. Chaskin, Robert J. 1997. "Perspectives on Neighborhood and Community: A Review of the Literature." Social Service Review 71: 521-47.
18. Chavez, Jorge M., and Elizabeth Griffiths. 2009. "Neighborhood Dynamics of Urban Violence: Understanding the Immigration Connection." Homicide Studies 13: 261-73.
19. Chen, Celia. 2008. "Mortgage Foreclosure Data." Presented at the Housing Statistics User Group, June 3, Washington, DC. http://groups.google. com/group/files?hl = en.
20. Clarke, Ronald V. 1995. "Situational Crime Prevention." In Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention, edited by Michael Tonry and David Farrington. Vol. 19 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
21. Cook, Philip J. 1980. "Research in Criminal Deterrence: Laying the Groundwork for the Second Decade." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 2, edited by Norval Morris and Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
22. Covington, Jeanette, and Ralph B. Taylor. 1989. "Gentrification and Crime: Robbery and Larceny Changes in Appreciating Baltimore Neighborhoods during the 1970s." Urban Affairs Quarterly 25: 142-72.
23. Cullen, Julie B., and Steven D. Levitt. 1999. "Crime, Urban Flight, and the Consequences for Cities." Review of Economics and Statistics 81: 159-69.
24. Cuomo, Mario M. 1974. Forest Hills Diary: The Crisis in Low-Income Housing. New York: Random House.
25. Curtis, Ric. 2003. "Crack, Cocaine and Heroin: Drug Eras in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, 1960-2000." Addiction Research and Theory 11: 47-63.
26. Curtis, Richard. 1998. "The Improbable Transformation of Inner-City Neighborhoods: Crime, Violence, Drugs, and Youth in the 1990's." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 88: 1233-76.
27. DeKeseredy, Walter S., Shahid Alvi, Martin S. Schwartz, and Andreas Tomaszewski. 2003. Under Siege: Poverty and Crime in a Public Housing Community. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
28. DiPasquale, Denise, and Edward L. Glaeser. 1999. "Incentives and Social Capital: Are Homeowners Better Citizens?" Journal of Urban Economics 34: 354-84.
29. Duncan, Greg J., Johanne Boisjoly, and Kathleen Mullan Harris. 2001. "Sibling, Peer, Neighbor, and Schoolmate Correlations as Indicators of the Importance of Context for Adolescent Development." Demography 38: 437-47.
30. Duncan, Greg J., James P. Connell, and Pamela K. Klebanov. 1997. "Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Estimating Causal Effects of Neighborhoods and Family Condition on Individual Development." In Neighborhood Poverty, vol. 1, edited by Jeanne Brooks-Gunn, Greg J. Duncan, and J. Lawrence Aber. New York: Sage.
31. Duncan, Greg J., and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 1999. "Assessing the Effects of Context in Studies of Child and Youth Development." Educational Psychologist 34: 29-41.
32. -. 2001. "Neighborhoods and Adolescent Development: How Can We Determine the Links?" In Does It Take a Village? Community Effects on Children, Adolescents, and Families, edited by Alan Booth and Ann C. Crouter. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
33. Durkheim, Émile. 1951. Suicide. New York: Free Press.
34. Ekblom, Paul, and Ken Pease. 1995. "Evaluating Crime Prevention." In Building a Safer Society: Strategic Approaches to Crime Prevention, edited by Michael Tonry and David Farrington. Vol. 19 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
35. Elliott, Delbert S., Scott Menard, Bruce Rankin, Amanda Elliott, William J. Wilson, and David Huizinga. 2006. Good Kids from Bad Neighborhoods: Successful Development in Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
36. Elmer, M. C. 1933. "Century-Old Ecological Studies in France." American Journal of Sociology 39: 63-70.
37. Fagan, Jeffrey. 2008. "Crime and Neighborhood Change." In Understanding Crime Trends: Workshop Report, edited by National Research Council. Committee on Understanding Crime Trends, Committee on Law and Justice, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
38. Fagan, Jeffrey, and Garth Davies. 2000. "Crime in Public Housing: Two-Way Diffusion Effects in Surrounding Neighborhoods." In Analyzing Crime Patterns: Frontiers of Practice, edited by Victor Goldsmith, Philip G. McGuire, John H. Mollenkopf, and Timothy A. Ross. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
39. Fagan, Jeffrey, Tamara Dumanovsky, J. Phillip Thompson, and Garth Davies. 1998. "Crime in Public Housing: Clarifying Research Issues." National Institute of Justice Journal 235: 2-9.
40. Farrington, David P. 1993. "Have Any Individual, Family or Neighbourhood Influences on Offending Been Demonstrated Conclusively?" In Integrating Individual and Ecological Aspects of Crime, edited by David Farrington, Robert Sampson, and Per-Olof Wikström. Stockholm: National Council on Crime Prevention.
41. Feinberg, Robert M., and David Nickerson. 2002. "Crime and Residential Mortgage Default: An Empirical Analysis." Applied Economia Letters 9: 217-20.
42. Foster, Janet, and Timothy Hope. 1993. Housing, Community and Crime: The Impact of the Priority Estate Project. London: HMSO.
43. Freeman, Lance. 2005. "Displacement or Succession? Residential Mobility in Gentrifying Neighborhoods." Urban Affairs Review 40: 463-91.
44. Freeman, Lance, and Hilary Botein. 2002. "Subsidized Housing and Neighborhood Impacts: A Theoretical Discussion and Review of the Evidence." Journal of Planning Literature 16: 359-78.
45. Freeman, Lance, and Frank Braconi. 2004. "Gentrification and Displacement: New York City in the 1990s." Journal of the American Planning Association 70:39-52.
46. Freudenburg, William R., and Robert Emmett Jones. 1991. "Criminal Behavior and Rapid Community Growth: Examining the Evidence." Rural Sociology 56: 619-45.
47. Frey, William H. 1979. "Central City White Flight: Racial and Nonracial Causes." American Sociological Review 44: 425-48.
48. -. 1980. "Black In-Migration, White Flight, and the Changing Economic Base of the Central City." American Journal of Sociology 85: 1396-1417.
49. Galster, George, and Anne Zobel. 1998. "Will Dispersed Housing Programmes Reduce Social Problems in the US?" Housing Studies 13: 605-22.
50. Gans, Herbert J. 1992. "Second-Generation Decline: Scenarios for the Economic and Ethnic Futures of the Post-1965 American Immigrants." Ethnic and Racial Studies 15: 173-92.
51. Garrison, Sonia, Sam Rogers, and Mary L. Moore. 2009. Continued Decay and Shaky Repairs: The State of Subprime Loans Today. Durham, NC: Center for Responsible Lending.
52. Glass, Ruth. 1964. "Introduction: Aspects of Change." In London: Aspects of Change, edited by Centre for Urban Studies. London: MacGibbon & Kee.
53. Goering, John, and Judith Feins, eds. 2003. Choosing a Better Life? Evaluating the Moving to Opportunity Social Experiment. Washington, DC: Urban Institute Press.
54. Goetz, Edward G. 2003. "Housing Dispersal Programs." Journal of Planning Literature 18: 3-16.
55. Gordon, Milton. 1964. Assimilation in American Life: The Role of Race, Religion, and National Origins. New York: Oxford University Press.
56. Gould, Roger V. 1995. Insurgent Identities: Class, Community, and Protest in Paris from 1848 to the Commune. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
57. Griffiths, Elizabeth, and George Tita. 2009. "Homicide in and around Public Housing: Is Public Housing a Hotbed, a Magnet, or a Generator of Violence for the Surrounding Community?" Social Problems 56: 474-93.
58. Guerry, André Michel. 1833. Essai sur la statistique morale de la France. Paris: Crochard.
59. Guest, Avery M., and Barrett A. Lee. 1984. "How Urbanites Define Their Neighborhoods." Population and Environment 7:32-56.
60. Hagan, John, and Alberto Palloni. 1998. "Immigration and Crime in the United States." In The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration, edited by James P. Smith and Barry Edmonston. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
61. Hagedorn, John, and Brigid Rauch. 2007. "Housing, Gangs, and Homicide: What We Can Learn from Chicago." Urban Affairs Review 42: 435-56.
62. Haley, Barbara A. 2005. "Guest Editor's Introduction." Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research 8: 1-4.
63. Hammel, Daniel J., and Elvin K. Wyly. 1996. "A Model for Identifying Gentrified Areas with Census Data." Urban Geography 17: 248-68.
64. Hannan, Michael T. 1971. Aggregation and Disaggregation in Sociology. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
65. Harcourt, Bernard E. 2005. "Policing L.A.'s Skid Row: Crime and Real Estate Development in Downtown Los Angeles (An Experiment in Real Time)." University of Chicago Legal Forum, http://ssrn.com/abstract=739130.
66. Harding, David J. 2003. "Counterfactual Models of Neighborhood Effects: The Effect of Neighborhood Poverty on High School Dropout and Teenage Pregnancy." American Journal of Sociology 109: 676-719.
67. Hipp, John R. 2007. "Block, Tract, and Levels of Aggregation: Neighborhood Structure and Crime and Disorder as a Case in Point." American Sociological Review 72: 659-80.
68. Hipp, John R., George E. Tita, and Robert T. Greenbaum. 2009. "Drive-Bys and Trade-Ups: Examining the Directionality of the Crime and Residential Instability Relationship." Social Forces 87: 1777-1812.
69. Hirsch, Arnold R. 1983. Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960. New York: Cambridge University Press.
70. Holzman, Harold R. 1996. "Criminological Research on Public Housing: Toward a Better Understanding of People, Places, and Spaces." Crime and Delinquency 42: 361-78.
71. Holzman, Harold R., Tari R. Kudrick, and Kenneth P. Voytek. 1996. "Revisiting the Relationship between Crime and Architectural Design: An Analysis of Data from HUD's 1994 Survey of Public Housing Residents." Cityscape: A Journal of Policy Development and Research 2:107-26.
72. Hoover, Edgar M., and Raymond Vernon. 1959. Anatomy of a Metropolis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
73. Hunter, Albert, and Gerald D. Suttles. 1972. "The Expanding Community of Limited Liability." In The Social Construction of Communities, by Gerald D. Suttles. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
74. Hyra, Derek S. 2008. The New Urban Renewal: The Economic Transformation of Harlem and Bronzeville. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
75. Immergluck, Dan, and Geoff Smith. 2006a. "The External Costs of Foreclosure: The Impact of Single-Family Mortgage Foreclosures on Property Values." Housing Policy Debate 17: 57-79.
76. -. 2006b. "The Impact of Single-Family Mortgage Foreclosures on Neighborhood Crime." Housing Studies 21: 851-66.
77. Jacob, Brian A. 2004. "Public Housing, Housing Vouchers, and Student Achievement: Evidence from Public Housing Demolitions in Chicago." American Economic Review 94: 233-58.
78. Joint Center for Housing Studies. 2008. The State of the Nation's Housing: 2008. Cambridge, MA: Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University.
79. -. 2009. The State of the Nation's Housing: 2009. Cambridge, MA: Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University.
80. Katz, Lawrence F., Jeffrey R. Kling, and Jeffrey B. Liebman. 2001. "Moving to Opportunity in Boston: Early Results of a Randomized Mobility Experiment." Quarterly Journal of Economia 116: 607-54.
81. Katzman, Martin T. 1980. "The Contribution of Crime to Urban Decline." Urban Studies 17: 277-86.
82. Kennedy, Maureen, and Paul Leonard. 2001. Dealing with Neighborhood Change: A Primer on Gentrification and Policy Choices. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
83. Kirk, David S. 2008. "The Neighborhood Context of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Arrest." Demography 45: 55-77.
84. -. 2009a. "A Natural Experiment on Residential Change and Recidivism: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina." American Sociological Review 74: 484-505.
85. -. 2009b. "Unraveling the Contextual Effects on Student Suspension and Juvenile Arrest: The Independent and Interdependent Influences of School, Neighborhood, and Family Controls." Criminology 47: 479-520.
86. Kling, Jeffrey R., Jeffrey B. Liebman, and Lawrence F. Katz. 2007. "Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects." Econometrica 75: 83-119.
87. Kornhauser, Ruth R. 1978. Social Sources of Delinquency. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
88. Kreager, Derek A., Christopher Lyons, and Zachary Hays. 2007. "Condos, Coffeeshops, and Crime: 1990's Urban Revitalization and Seattle Crime Trends." Paper presented at the 2007 American Society of Criminology annual conference, Atlanta.
89. Krueger, P. M., S. A. Bond Huie, R. G. Rogers, and R. A. Hummer. 2004. "Neighborhoods and Homicide Mortality: An Analysis of Race/Ethnic Differences." Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 58: 223-30.
90. Lee, Barrett A., and Karen E. Campbell. 1997. "Common Ground? Urban Neighborhoods as Survey Respondents See Them." Social Science Quarterly 78: 922-36.
91. Lee, Matthew T., Ramiro Martinez Jr., and Richard Rosenfeld. 2001. "Does Immigration Increase Homicide? Negative Evidence from Three Border Cities." Sociological Quarterly 42: 559-80.
92. Lieberson, Stanley. 1980. A Piece of the Pie: Black and White Immigrants since 1880. Berkeley: University of California Press.
93. Linden, Leigh, and Jonah E. Rockoff. 2008. "Estimate of the Impact of Crime Risk on Property Values from Megan's Laws." American Economic Review 98: 1103-27.
94. Liska, Allen E., and Paul E. Bellair. 1995. "Violent-Crime Rates and Racial Composition: Convergence over Time." American Journal of Sociology 101: 578-610.
95. Liska, Allen E., John R. Logan, and Paul E. Bellair. 1998. "Race and Violent Crime in the Suburbs." American Sociological Review 63: 27-38.
96. Logan, John R., and Harvey L. Molotch. 1987. Urban Fortunes: The Political Economy of Place. Berkeley: University of California Press.
97. Ludwig, Jens, Jeffrey B. Liebman, Jeffrey R. Kling, Greg J. Duncan, Lawrence F. Katz, Ronald C. Kessler, and Lisa Sanbonmatsu. 2008. "What Can We Learn about Neighborhood Effects from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment? A Comment on Clampet-Lundquist and Massey." American Journal ofSociology 114: 144-88.
98. MacDonald, John M., John R. Hipp, and Charlotte Gill. 2009. "Neighborhood Effects of Immigrant Concentration on Crime: Do Immigrants Make Communities Safer?" Working paper, August 6. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Department of Criminology.
99. Manning, Christopher A. 1986. "Intercity Differences in Home Price Appreciation." Journal of Real Estate Research 1: 45-66.
100. Manski, Charles F. 1993. "Identification of Endogenous Social Effects: The Reflection Problem." Review of Economic Studies 60: 531-42.
101. Martinez, Ramiro, Jr., and Abel Valenzuela Jr., eds. 2006. Immigration and Crime: Race, Ethnicity, and Violence. New York: New York University Press.
102. Massey, Douglas S., and Nancy A. Denton. 1993. American Apartheid: Segre- gation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
103. Mayhew, Henry. 1862. London Labour and the London Poor. Vol. 4. London: Charles Griffin.
104. McDonald, Scott C. 1986. "Does Gentrification Affect Crime Rates?" In Communities and Crime, edited by Albert J. Reiss Jr. and Michael Tonry. Vol. 8 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
105. McNulty, Thomas L., and Steven R. Holloway. 2000. "Race, Crime, and Public Housing in Atlanta: Testing a Conditional Effect Hypothesis." Social Forces 79: 707-29.
106. Messner, Steven F., Luc Anselin, Robert D. Baller, Darnell F. Hawkins, Glenn Deane, and Stewart E. Tolnay. 1999. "The Spatial Patterning of County Homicide Rates: An Application of Exploratory Spatial Data Analysis." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 15: 423-50.
107. Meyerson, Martin, and Edward C. Banfield. 1964. Politics, Planning and the Public Interest: The Case of Public Housing in Chicago. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
108. Morenoff, Jeffrey D., and Avraham Astor. 2006. "Immigrant Assimilation and Crime: Generational Differences in Youth Violence in Chicago." In Immigration and Crime: Race, Ethnicity, and Violence, edited by Ramiro Martinez Jr. and Abel Valenzuela Jr. New York: New York University Press.
109. Morenoff, Jeffrey D., and Robert J. Sampson. 1997. "Violent Crime and the Spatial Dynamics of Neighborhood Transition: Chicago, 1970-1990." Social Forces 76: 31-64.
110. Mortgage Bankers Association. 2008. "Delinquencies Increase, Foreclosure Starts Flat in Latest MBA National Delinquency Survey." Press release, December 5. http://www.mortgagebankers.org/NewsandMedia/PressCenter/ 66626.htm.
111. -. 2009. "Delinquencies and Foreclosures Continue to Climb in Latest MBA National Delinquency Survey." Press release, May 28. http://www.mortgagebankers.org/NewsandMedia/PressCenter/6903.htm.
112. Nagin, Daniel. 1978. "General Deterrence: A Review of the Empirical Evidence." In Deterrence and Incapacitation: Estimating the Effects of Criminal Sanctions on Crime Rates, edited by Alfred Blumstein, Jacqueline Cohen, and Daniel Nagin. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
113. Newman, Kathe, and Elvin K. Wyly. 2006. "The Right to Stay Put, Revisited: Gentrification and Resistance to Displacement in New York City." Urban Studies 43: 23-57.
114. Newman, Oscar. 1972. Defensible Space: Crime Prevention through Urban Design. New York: Macmillan.
115. Nielsen, Amie L., Matthew T. Lee, and Ramiro Martinez Jr. 2005. "Integrating Race, Place and Motive in Social Disorganization Theory: Lessons from a Comparison of Black and Latino Homicide Types in Two Immigrant Destination Cities." Criminology 43: 837-72.
116. Oberwittler, Dietrich, and Per-Olof H. Wikström. 2008. "Why Small Is Better: Advancing the Study of the Role of Behavioral Contexts in Crime Causation." In Putting Crime in Its Place: Units of Analysis in Geographic Criminology, edited by David Weisburd, Wim Bernasco, and Gerben Bruinsma. New York: Springer.
117. Openshaw, Stan. 1984. The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. Norwich: Geo Books.
118. Openshaw, Stan, and P. J. Taylor 1979. "A Million or So Correlation Coefficients: Three Experiments on the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem." In Statistical Applications in the Spatial Sciences, edited by N. Wrigley. London: Pion.
119. Orr, Larry, Judith D. Feins, Robin Jacob, Erik Beecroft, Lisa Sanbonmatsu, Lawrence F. Katz, Jeffrey B. Liebman, and Jeffrey R. Kling. 2003. Moving to Opportunity Interim Impacts Evaluation. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.
120. Pattillo, Mary E. 2007. Black on the Block: The Politics of Race and Class in the City. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
121. Perin, Constance. 1977. Everything in Its Place: Social Order and Land Use in America. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
122. Pew Hispanic Center. 2009. Statistical Portrait of the Foreign-Born Population in the United States, 2007. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center.
123. Popkin, Susan J., Victoria E. Gwiasda, Dennis P. Rosenbaum, Jean M. Amendolia, Wendell A. Johnson, and Lynn M. Olson. 1999. "Combating Crime in Public Housing: A Qualitative and Quantitative Longitudinal Analysis of the Chicago Housing Authority's Anti-drug Initiative." Justice Quarterly 16: 519-57.
124. Popkin, Susan J., Bruce Katz, Mary K. Cunningham, Karen D. Brown, Jeremy Gustafson, and Margery A. Turner. 2004. A Decade of HOPE VI: Research Findings and Policy Challenges. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
125. Portes, Alejandro, and Rubén G. Rumbaut. 1996. Immigrant America: A Portrait. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press.
126. -. 2001. Legacies: The Story of the Immigrant Second Generation. Berkeley: University of California Press.
127. Portes, Alejandro, and Min Zhou. 1993. "The New Second Generation: Segmented Assimilation and Its Variants." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 530: 74-96.
128. Pratt, Travis C., and Francis T. Cullen. 2005. "Assessing Macro-Level Predictors and Theories of Crime: A Meta-Analysis." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 32, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
129. Quetelet, Adolphe. 1984. Research on the Propensity for Crime at Different Ages. Translated and introduced by Sawyer F. Sylvester. Cincinnati: Anderson. (Originally published 1831.)
130. Raudenbush, Stephen W., and Robert J. Sampson. 1999. "'Ecometrics': Toward a Science of Assessing Ecological Settings, with Application to the Systematic Social Observation of Neighborhoods." Sociological Methodology 29: 1-41.
131. Rawson, Rawson W. 1839. "An Inquiry into the Statistics of Crime in England and Wales." Journal of the Statistical Society of London 2: 316-44.
132. Reiss, Albert J., Jr. 1971. "Systematic Observations of Natural Social Phenomena." Sociological Methodology 3: 3-33.
133. -. 1986. "Why Are Communities Important in Understanding Crime?" In Communities and Crime, edited by Albert J. Reiss Jr. and Michael Tonry. Vol. 8 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
134. Reiss, Albert J., Jr., and Michael Tonry, eds. 1986. Communities and Crime. Vol. 8 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
135. Robinson, W. S. 1950. "Ecological Correlation and the Behavior of Individuals." American Sociological Review 15: 351-57.
136. Rohe, William M., Shannon Van Zandt, and George McCarthy. 2000. The Social Benefits and Costs of Homeownership: A Critical Assessment of the Research. Chapel Hill: Center for Urban and Regional Studies, University of North Carolina.
137. Roncek, Dennis W., Ralph Bell, and Jeffrey M. A. Francik. 1981. "Housing Projects and Crime: Testing a Proximity Hypothesis." Social Problems 29: 151-66.
138. Rosenfeld, Richard. 2004. "The Case of the Unsolved Crime Decline." Scientific American (February): 82-89.
139. Rosin, Hanna. 2008. "American Murder Mystery." Atlantic 301(July/August): 40-54.
140. Rossi, Peter H. 1955. Why Families Move. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
141. Sampson, Robert J. 2006a. "Collective Efficacy Theory: Lessons Learned and Directions for Future Inquiry." In Taking Stock: The Status of Criminological Theory. Advances in Criminological Theory, vol. 15, edited by Francis T. Cullen, John Paul Wright, and Kristie R. Blevins. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
142. -. 2006b. "How Does Community Context Matter? Social Mechanisms and the Explanation of Crime." In The Explanation of Crime: Context, Mechanisms, and Development, edited by Per-Olof H. Wikström and Robert J. Sampson. New York: Cambridge University Press.
143. -. 2008a. "Moving to Inequality: Neighborhood Effects and Experiments Meet Social Structure." American Journal of Sociology 114: 189-231.
144. -. 2008b. "Rethinking Crime and Immigration." Contexts 7: 28-33.
145. -. 2009. "Racial Stratification and the Durable Tangle of Neighborhood Inequality." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 621 : 260-80.
146. Sampson, Robert J., and W. Byron Groves. 1989. "Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social Disorganization Theory." American Journal of Sociology 94: 744-802.
147. Sampson, Robert J., and Jeffrey D. Morenoff. 2006. "Durable Inequality: Spatial Dynamics, Social Processes, and the Persistence of Poverty in Chicago Neighborhoods." In Poverty Traps, edited by Samuel Bowles, Steven N. Durlauf, and Karla Hoff. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
148. Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Thomas P. Gannon-Rowley. 2002. "Assessing 'Neighborhood Effects': Social Processes and New Directions in Research." Annual Review of Sociology 28: 443-78.
149. Sampson, Robert J., Jeffrey D. Morenoff, and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 2005. "Social Anatomy of Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Violence." American Journal of Public Health 95: 224-32.
150. Sampson, Robert J., and Stephen W. Raudenbush. 1999. "Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A New Look at Disorder in Urban Neighborhoods." American Journal of Sociology 105: 603-51.
151. Sampson, Robert J., Stephen W. Raudenbush, and Felton Earls. 1997. "Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel Study of Collective Efficacy." Science 227:918-24.
152. Sampson, Robert J., and John D. Wooldredge. 1986. "Evidence That High Crime Rates Encourage Migration Away from Central Cities." Sociology and Social Research 90: 310-14.
153. Santiago, Anna M., George C. Galster, and Kathryn L. S. Pettit. 2003. "Neighborhood Crime and Scattered-Site Public Housing." Urban Studies 40: 2147-63.
154. Schloemer, Ellen, Wei Li, Keith Ernst, and Kathleen Keest. 2006. Losing Ground: Foreclosures in the Subprime Market and Their Cost to Homeowners. Durham, NC: Center for Responsible Lending.
155. Schuerman, Leo, and Solomon Kobrin. 1986. "Community Careers in Crime." In Communities and Crime, edited by Albert J. Reiss Jr. and Michael Tonry. Vol. 8 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
156. Schuetz, Jenny, Vicki Been, and Ingrid Gould Ellen. 2008. "Neighborhood Effects of Concentrated Mortgage Foreclosures." Journal of Housing Economics 17: 306-19.
157. Schwartz, Amy E., Scott Susin, and Ioan Voicu. 2003. "Has Falling Crime Driven New York City's Real Estate Boom?" Journal of Housing Research 14: 101-35.
158. Shaw, Clifford R., with collaboration of Frederick M. Zorbaugh, Henry D. McKay, and Leonard S. Cottrell. 1929. Delinquency Areas: A Study of the Geographic Distribution of School Truants, Juvenile Delinquents, and Adult Offenders in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
159. Shaw, Clifford R., and Henry D. McKay. 1942. Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
160. Shiller, Robert J. 2007. "Understanding Recent Trends in House Prices and Home Ownership." Working Paper no. W13553. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.
161. -. 2008. The Subprime Solution: How Today's Global Financial Crisis Happened, and What to Do about It. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
162. Shlay, Anne B. 2006. "Low-Income Homeownership: American Dream or Delusion?" Urban Studies 43: 511-31.
163. Skogan, Wesley G. 1986. "Fear of Crime and Neighborhood Change." In Communities and Crime, edited by Albert J. Reiss Jr. and Michael Tonry. Vol. 8 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry and Norval Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
164. -. 1990. Disorder and Decline: Crime and the Spiral of Decay in American Neighborhoods. New York: Free Press.
165. Skogan, Wesley G., and Michael G. Maxfield. 1981. Coping with Crime: Individual and Neighborhood Reactions. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
166. Smith, Neil. 1996. The New Urban Frontier: Gentrification and the Revanchist City. London: Routledge.
167. Sobel, Michael E. 2006. "Spatial Concentration and Social Stratification: Does the Clustering of Disadvantage 'Beget' Bad Outcomes?" In Poverty Traps, edited by Samuel Bowles, Steven N. Durlauf, and Karla Hoff. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
168. Spelman, William. 1993. "Abandoned Buildings: Magnets for Crime?" Journal of Criminal Justice 21: 481-95.
169. Squires, Gregory D., and Charis E. Kubrin. 2006. Privileged Places: Race, Residence, and the Structure of Opportunity. Boulder, CO: Rienner.
170. Stowell, Jacob I., and Ramiro Martinez. 2007. "Displaced, Dispossessed, or Lawless? Examining the Link between Ethnicity, Immigration, and Violence." Aggression and Violent Behavior 12: 564-81.
171. Suresh, Geetha, and Gennaro F. Vito. 2007. "The Tragedy of Public Housing: Spatial Analysis of Hotspots of Aggravated Assaults in Louisville, KY (1989-1998)." American Journal of Criminal Justice 32: 99-115.
172. Sutherland, Edwin H. 1934. Principles of Criminology. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
173. Taeuber, Karl E., and Alma F. Taeuber. 1965. Negroes in Cities. Chicago: Aldine.
174. Taub, Richard P., D. Garth Taylor, and Jan D. Dunham. 1984. Paths of Neighborhood Change: Race and Crime in Urban America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
175. Taylor, Ralph B. 1995. "The Impact of Crime on Communities." Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 539: 28-45.
176. Taylor, Ralph B., and Jeanette Covington. 1988. "Neighborhood Changes in Ecology and Violence." Criminology 26: 553-90.
177. Thomas, William I., and Florian Znaniecki. 1918. The Polish Peasant in Europe and America. Vols. 1-2. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
178. Tilly, Charles. 1973. "Do Communities Act?" Sociological Inquiry 43: 209-40.
179. Tita, George E., Tricia L. Petras, and Robert T. Greenbaum. 2006. "Crime and Residential Choice: A Neighborhood Level Analysis of the Impact of Crime on Housing Prices." Journal of Quantitative Criminology 22: 299-317.
180. Tonry, Michael. 1997. "Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration." In Ethnicity, Crime, and Immigration: Comparative and Cross-National Perspectives, edited by Michael Tonry. Vol. 21 of Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
181. Turner, Margery A., Mark Woolley, G. Thomas Kingsley, Susan J. Popkin, Diane Levy, and Elizabeth Cove. 2007. Estimating the Public Costs and Benefits of HOPE VI Investments: Methodological Report. Washington, DC: Urban Institute.
182. U.S. Census Bureau. 2004. Historical Census of Housing Tables: Homeownership. http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/housing/census/historic/owner. html.
183. -. 2008. Cumulative Estimates of the Components of Population Change for the United States, Regions, and States: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2008. http://www.census.gov/popest/states/tables/NST-EST2008-04.xls.
184. -. 2009a. Current Population Survey: Geographical Mobility; 2007 to 2008. http://www.census.gov/population/socdemo/migration/cps2008/tab21.xls.
185. -. 2009b. "Residential Mover Rate in U.S. Is Lowest since Census Bureau Began Tracking in 1948." Press release, April 22. http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/mobihty-of-the- population/013609.html
186. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. 1996. A Picture of Subsidized Households, December 1996. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, http://www.huduser.org/datasets/assdisg/statedata96/us. htm.
187. -. 2000. A Picture of Subsidized Households, 2000. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, http://www.huduser.org/picture2000/ index.html.
188. U.S. Government Accountability Office. 2007. Information on Recent Default and Foreclosure Trends for Home Mortgages and Associated Economic and Market Developments. Report GAO-08-78R. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Accountability Office, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0878r.pdf.
189. U.S. Immigration Commission. 1911. Immigration and Crime. Vol. 36. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
190. Van Wilsem, Johan, Karin Wittebrood, and Nan Dirk De Graaf. 2006. "Socioeconomic Dynamics of Neighborhoods and the Risk of Crime Victimization: A Multilevel Study of Improving, Declining, and Stable Areas in the Netherlands." Social Problems 53: 226-47.
191. Vigdor, Jacob L. 2002. "Does Gentrification Harm the Poor?" BrookingsWharton Papers on Urban Affairs 2002: 133-73.
192. Waldinger, Roger. 1989. "Immigration and Urban Change." Annual Review of Sociology 15: 211-32.
193. Warner, W. Lloyd, and Leo Srole. 1945. The Social Systems of American Ethnic Groups. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
194. Weatherburn, Don, Bronwyn Lind, and Simon Ku. 1999. "'Hotbeds of Crime?' Crime and Public Housing in Urban Sydney." Crime and Delinquency 45: 256-71.
195. Wellman, Barry, and Barry Leighton. 1979. "Networks, Neighborhoods, and Communities: Approaches to the Study of the Community Question." Urban Affairs Quarterly 14: 363-90.
196. Wickersham Commission. 1931. National Commission on Law Observance and Enforcement: Report on Crime and the Foreign Born. Report no. 10. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
197. Wikström, Per-Olof. 1998. "Communities and Crime." In Oxford Handbook on Crime and Punishment, edited by Michael Tonry. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
198. -. 2004. "Crime as Alternative: Towards a Cross-Level Situational Action Theory of Crime Causation." In Beyond Empiricism: Institutions and Intentions in the Study of Crime. Advances in Criminological Theory 13, edited by Joan McCord. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
199. -. 2006. "Individuals, Settings, and Acts of Crime: Situational Mechanisms and die Explanation of Crime." In The Explanation of Crime: Context, Mechanisms, and Development, edited by Per-Olof H. Wikström and Robert J. Sampson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
200. -. 2007. "The Social Ecology of Crime: The Role of the Environment in Crime Causation." In Internationales Handbuch der Kriminologie, edited by Hans Joachim Schneider. Berlin: De Gruyter Recht.
201. Wikström, Per-Olof H., and Robert J. Sampson. 2006. "Introduction: Toward a Unified Approach to Crime and Its Explanation." In The Explanation of Crime: Context, Mechanisms, and Development, edited by Per-Olof H. Wikström and Robert J. Sampson. New York: Cambridge University Press.
202. Wilson, William J. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
203. Wooldredge, John. 2002. "Examining the (Ir)Relevance of Aggregation Bias for Multilevel Studies of Neighborhoods and Crime with an Example Comparing Census Tracts to Official Neighborhoods in Cincinnati." Criminology 40: 681-709.
204. Wyly, Elvin K., and Daniel J. Hammel. 1999. "Islands of Decay in Seas of Renewal: Urban Housing Policy and the Resurgence of Gentrification. " Housing Policy Debate 10: 711-71.