Pharmacological enhancement of drug cue extinction learning: Translational challenges

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences

Volumn 1216, Issue 1, 2011, Pages 122-137

  Kantak, K M ^a   Nic Dhonnchadha, B A ^a  

^a BOSTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Addiction; Anxiety; Cognitive enhancement; Drugs of abuse; Exposure therapy; Extinction

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL; COCAINE; CYCLOSERINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; NALOXONE; NICOTINE;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ANXIETY DISORDER; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; ASSOCIATIVE MEMORY; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BASOLATERAL AMYGDALA; BLOOD PRESSURE; COCAINE DEPENDENCE; COGNITION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COGNITIVE THERAPY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGY; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; IMPULSIVENESS; NONHUMAN; OPIATE ADDICTION; SKIN CONDUCTANCE; SKIN TEMPERATURE; STATE DEPENDENT LEARNING; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; VENTROMEDIAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX; WORKING MEMORY;

EID: 79251507601     PISSN: 00778923     EISSN: 17496632     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05899.x     Document Type: Article

References (173)

1. Hofmann, S.G. & J.A. Smits 2008. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for adult anxiety disorders: a meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials. J. Clin. Psychiatry 69: 621-632.
2. Otto, M.W., J.A. Smits & H.E. Reese 2004. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. J. Clin. Psychiatry 65 (Suppl 5): 34-41.
3. O'Brien, C.P. et al 1998. Conditioning factors in drug abuse: can they explain compulsion J Psychopharmacol. 12: 15-22.
4. Conklin, C.A. & S.T. Tiffany 2002. Applying extinction research and theory to cue-exposure addiction treatments. Addiction 97: 155-167.
5. Kavanagh, D.J. et al 2006. Addition of cue exposure to cognitive-behaviour therapy for alcohol misuse: a randomized trial with dysphoric drinkers. Addiction 101: 1106-1116.
6. Havermans, R.C. & A.T. Jansen 2003. Increasing the efficacy of cue exposure treatment in preventing relapse of addictive behavior. Addict. Behav. 28: 989-994.
7. MacKillop, J. & S.A. Lisman 2008. Effects of a context shift and multiple context extinction on reactivity to alcohol cues. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16: 322-331.
8. Stasiewicz, P.R., T.H. Brandon & C.M. Bradizza 2007. Effects of extinction context and retrieval cues on renewal of alcohol-cue reactivity among alcohol-dependent outpatients. Psychol. Addict. Behav. 21: 244-248.
9. Collins, B.N. & T.H. Brandon 2002. Effects of extinction context and retrieval cues on alcohol cue reactivity among nonalcoholic drinkers. J. Consult Clin. Psychol. 70: 390-397.
10. Sitharthan, T. et al 1997. Cue exposure in moderation drinking: a comparison with cognitive-behavior therapy. J. Consult Clin. Psychol. 65: 878-882.
11. Loeber, S. et al 2006. Cue exposure in the treatment of alcohol dependence: effects on drinking outcome, craving and self-efficacy. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 45: 515-529.
12. Niaura, R. et al 1999. Cue exposure treatment for smoking relapse prevention: a controlled clinical trial. Addiction 94: 685-695.
13. Lee, J. et al 2004. Nicotine craving and cue exposure therapy by using virtual environments. Cyberpsychol. Behav. 7: 705-713.
14. Santa Ana, E.J. et al 2009. D-cycloserine attenuates reactivity to smoking cues in nicotine dependent smokers: a pilot investigation. Drug Alcohol Depend. 104: 220-227.
15. Dawe, S. et al 1993. Does post-withdrawal cue exposure improve outcome in opiate addiction? A controlled trial. Addiction 88: 1233-1245.
16. Marissen, M.A. et al 2007. Cue exposure therapy for the treatment of opiate addiction: results of a randomized controlled clinical trial. Psychother. Psychosom. 76: 97-105.
17. Yu, J. et al 2007. Gender and stimulus difference in cue-induced responses in abstinent heroin users. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 86: 485-492.
18. O'Brien, C.P. et al 1990. Integrating systemic cue exposure with standard treatment in recovering drug dependent patients. Addict. Behav. 15: 355-365.
19. Childress, A.R. et al 1993. Cue reactivity and cue reactivity interventions in drug dependence. NIDA Res. Monogr. 137: 73-95.
20. Myers, K.M. & M. Davis 2007. Mechanisms of fear extinction. Mol. Psychiatry 12: 120-150.
21. Quirk, G.J. & D. Mueller 2008. Neural mechanisms of extinction learning and retrieval. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 56-72.
22. Ehrlich, I. et al 2009. Amygdala inhibitory circuits and the control of fear memory. Neuron 62: 757-771.
23. Hobin, J.A., K.A. Goosens & S. Maren 2003. Context-dependent neuronal activity in the lateral amygdala represents fear memories after extinction. J. Neurosci. 23: 8410-8416.
24. Quirk, G.J., J.L. Armony & J.E. LeDoux 1997. Fear conditioning enhances different temporal components of tone-evoked spike trains in auditory cortex and lateral amygdala. Neuron 19: 613-624.
25. Repa, J.C. et al 2001. Two different lateral amygdala cell populations contribute to the initiation and storage of memory. Nat. Neurosci. 4: 724-731.
26. Hartley, C.A. & E.A. Phelps 2010. Changing fear: the neurocircuitry of emotion regulation. Neuropsychopharmacology 35: 136-146.
27. Kim, J.H. & R. Richardson 2008. The effect of temporary amygdala inactivation on extinction and reextinction of fear in the developing rat: unlearning as a potential mechanism for extinction early in development. J. Neurosci. 28: 1282-1290.
28. Laurent, V. & R.F. Westbrook 2008. Distinct contributions of the basolateral amygdala and the medial prefrontal cortex to learning and relearning extinction of context conditioned fear. Learn. Mem. 15: 657-666.
29. Laurent, V., A.R. Marchand & R.F. Westbrook 2008. The basolateral amygdala is necessary for learning but not relearning extinction of context conditioned fear. Learn. Mem. 15: 304-314.
30. Herry, C. et al 2008. Switching on and off fear by distinct neuronal circuits. Nature 454: 600-606.
31. Milad, M.R. & G.J. Quirk 2002. Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction. Nature 420: 70-74.
32. Santini, E., G.J. Quirk & J.T. Porter 2008. Fear conditioning and extinction differentially modify the intrinsic excitability of infralimbic neurons. J. Neurosci. 28: 4028-4036.
33. Santini, E., R.U. Muller & G.J. Quirk 2001. Consolidation of extinction learning involves transfer from NMDA-independent to NMDA-dependent memory. J. Neurosci. 21: 9009-9017.
34. Santini, E. et al 2004. Consolidation of fear extinction requires protein synthesis in the medial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci. 24: 5704-5710.
35. Hugues, S. et al 2006. Prefrontal infusion of PD098059 immediately after fear extinction training blocks extinction-associated prefrontal synaptic plasticity and decreases prefrontal ERK2 phosphorylation. Synapse 60: 280-287.
36. Burgos-Robles, A. et al 2007. Consolidation of fear extinction requires NMDA receptor-dependent bursting in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Neuron 53: 871-880.
37. Hugues, S., O. Deschaux & R. Garcia 2004. Postextinction infusion of a mitogen-activated protein kinase inhibitor into the medial prefrontal cortex impairs memory of the extinction of conditioned fear. Learn. Mem. 11: 540-543.
38. Quirk, G.J., R. Garcia & F. Gonzalez-Lima 2006. Prefrontal mechanisms in extinction of conditioned fear. Biol. Psychiatry 60: 337-343.
39. Daumas, S. et al 2005. Encoding, consolidation, and retrieval of contextual memory: differential involvement of dorsal CA3 and CA1 hippocampal subregions. Learn. Mem. 12: 375-382.
40. Rudy, J.W. 2009. Context representations, context functions, and the parahippocampal-hippocampal system. Learn. Mem. 16: 573-585.
41. Corcoran, K.A. & S. Maren 2001. Hippocampal inactivation disrupts contextual retrieval of fear memory after extinction. J. Neurosci. 21: 1720-1726.
42. Corcoran, K.A. et al 2005. Hippocampal inactivation disrupts the acquisition and contextual encoding of fear extinction. J. Neurosci. 25: 8978-8987.
43. Hobin, J.A., J. Ji & S. Maren 2006. Ventral hippocampal muscimol disrupts context-specific fear memory retrieval after extinction in rats. Hippocampus 16: 174-182.
44. Wilson, A., D.C. Brooks & M.E. Bouton 1995. The role of the rat hippocampal system in several effects of context in extinction. Behav. Neurosci. 109: 828-836.
45. Bouton, M.E. 2004. Context and behavioral processes in extinction. Learn. Mem. 11: 485-494.
46. Tierney, P.L. et al 2004. Influence of the hippocampus on interneurons of the rat prefrontal cortex. Eur. J. Neurosci. 20: 514-524.
47. Ishikawa, A. & S. Nakamura 2003. Convergence and interaction of hippocampal and amygdalar projections within the prefrontal cortex in the rat. J. Neurosci. 23: 9987-9995.
48. Thierry, A.M. et al 2000. Hippocampo-prefrontal cortex pathway: anatomical and electrophysiological characteristics. Hippocampus 10: 411-419.
49. Maren, S. & M.S. Fanselow 1995. Synaptic plasticity in the basolateral amygdala induced by hippocampal formation stimulation in vivo. J. Neurosci. 15: 7548-7564.
50. Pitkanen, A. et al 2000. Reciprocal connections between the amygdala and the hippocampal formation, perirhinal cortex, and postrhinal cortex in rat. A review. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 911: 369-391.
51. Fanselow, M.S. 2000. Contextual fear, gestalt memories, and the hippocampus. Behav. Brain Res. 110: 73-81.
52. Ji, J. & S. Maren 2005. Electrolytic lesions of the dorsal hippocampus disrupt renewal of conditional fear after extinction. Learn. Mem. 12: 270-276.
53. Corcoran, K.A. & G.J. Quirk 2007. Recalling safety: cooperative functions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus in extinction. CNS. Spectr. 12: 200-206.
54. Maren, S. & J.A. Hobin 2007. Hippocampal regulation of context-dependent neuronal activity in the lateral amygdala. Learn. Mem. 14: 318-324.
55. Kim, J.H., A.S. Hamlin & R. Richardson 2009. Fear extinction across development: the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex as assessed by temporary inactivation and immunohistochemistry. J. Neurosci. 29: 10802-10808.
56. Peters, J., P.W. Kalivas & G.J. Quirk 2009. Extinction circuits for fear and addiction overlap in prefrontal cortex. Learn. Mem. 16: 279-288.
57. Fowler, J.S. et al 2007. Imaging the addicted human brain. Sci. Pract. Perspect. 3: 4-16.
58. Liu, J. et al 2009. Dysfunctional connectivity patterns in chronic heroin users: an fMRI study. Neurosci. Lett. 460: 72-77.
59. Makris, N. et al 2008. Cortical thickness abnormalities in cocaine addiction-a reflection of both drug use and a pre-existing disposition to drug abuse? Neuron 60: 174-188.
60. McClernon, F.J. 2009. Neuroimaging of nicotine dependence: key findings and application to the study of smoking-mental illness comorbidity. J. Dual. Diagn. 5: 168-178.
61. Azizian, A. et al 2009. Magnetic resonance imaging studies of cigarette smoking. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 192: 113-143.
62. Stephens, D.N. & T. Duka 2008. Review. Cognitive and emotional consequences of binge drinking: role of amygdala and prefrontal cortex. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond B Biol. Sci. 363: 3169-3179.
63. Wrase, J. et al 2008. Amygdala volume associated with alcohol abuse relapse and craving. Am. J. Psychiatry 165: 1179-1184.
64. Gooding, D.C., S. Burroughs & N.N. Boutros 2008. Attentional deficits in cocaine-dependent patients: converging behavioral and electrophysiological evidence. Psychiatry Res. 160: 145-154.
65. Moeller, F.G. et al 2004. P300 event-related potential amplitude and impulsivity in cocaine-dependent subjects. Neuropsychobiology 50: 167-173.
66. Bauer, L.O. 2001. CNS recovery from cocaine, cocaine and alcohol, or opioid dependence: a P300 study. Clin. Neurophysiol. 112: 1508-1515.
67. Biggins, C.A. et al 1997. Event-related potential evidence for frontal cortex effects of chronic cocaine dependence. Biol. Psychiat. 42: 472-485.
68. Chen, A.C. et al 2007. Reduced frontal lobe activity in subjects with high impulsivity and alcoholism. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 31: 156-165.
69. Johnson, B. et al 1998. Effects of acute intravenous cocaine on cardiovascular function, human learning, and performance in cocaine addicts. Psychiat. Res. 77: 35-42.
70. Toomey, R. et al 2003. A twin study of the neuropsychological consequences of stimulant abuse. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 60: 303-310.
71. Moeller, F.G. et al 2005. Reduced anterior corpus callosum white matter integrity is related to increased impulsivity and reduced discriminability in cocaine-dependent subjects: diffusion tensor imaging. Neuropsychopharmacology 30: 610-617.
72. Woicik, P.A. et al 2009. The neuropsychology of cocaine addiction: recent cocaine use masks impairment. Neuropsychopharmacology 34: 1112-1122.
73. Pace-Schott, E.F. et al 2008. Cocaine users differ from normals on cognitive tasks which show poorer performance during drug abstinence. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 34: 109-121.
74. Ceballos, N.A. et al 2006. Nicotine and cognitive efficiency in alcoholics and illicit stimulant abusers: implications of smoking cessation for substance users in treatment. Subst. Use. Misuse. 41: 265-281.
75. Nixon, S.J. et al 2007. Nicotine's effects on attentional efficiency in alcoholics. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 31: 2083-2091.
76. Fernandez-Serrano, M.J. et al 2010. Neuropsychological consequences of alcohol and drug abuse on different components of executive functions. J. Psychopharmacol. 24: 1317-1332.
77. Colzato, L.S., M. Huizinga & B. Hommel 2009. Recreational cocaine polydrug use impairs cognitive flexibility but not working memory. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 207: 225-234.
78. Goldstein, R.Z. et al 2004. Severity of neuropsychological impairment in cocaine and alcohol addiction: association with metabolism in the prefrontal cortex. Neuropsychologia 42: 1447-1458.
79. Beatty, W.W. et al 1995. Neuropsychological performance of recently abstinent alcoholics and cocaine abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 37: 247-253.
80. Hester, R. & H. Garavan 2004. Executive dysfunction in cocaine addiction: evidence for discordant frontal, cingulate, and cerebellar activity. J. Neurosci. 24: 11017-11022.
81. Bolla, K.I., F.R. Funderburk & J.L. Cadet 2000. Differential effects of cocaine and cocaine alcohol on neurocognitive performance. Neurology 54: 2285-2292.
82. Kubler, A., K. Murphy & H. Garavan 2005. Cocaine dependence and attention switching within and between verbal and visuospatial working memory. Eur. J. Neurosci. 21: 1984-1992.
83. Ornstein, T.J. et al 2000. Profiles of cognitive dysfunction in chronic amphetamine and heroin abusers. Neuropsychopharmacology 23: 113-126.
84. Mintzer, M.Z. & M.L. Stitzer 2002. Cognitive impairment in methadone maintenance patients. Drug Alcohol Depend. 67: 41-51.
85. Verdejo, A. et al 2005. Neuropsychological functioning in methadone maintenance patients versus abstinent heroin abusers. Drug Alcohol Depend. 78: 283-288.
86. Pineda, J.A. et al 1998. Effects of cigarette smoking and 12-h abstention on working memory during a serial-probe recognition task. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 139: 311-321.
87. Houlihan, M.E., W.S. Pritchard & J.H. Robinson 2001. Effects of smoking/nicotine on performance and event-related potentials during a short-term memory scanning task. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 156: 388-396.
88. Xu, J. et al 2006. Effects of acute smoking on brain activity vary with abstinence in smokers performing the N-Back task: a preliminary study. Psychiatry Res. 148: 103-109.
89. Mendrek, A. et al 2006. Working memory in cigarette smokers: comparison to non-smokers and effects of abstinence. Addict. Behav. 31: 833-844.
90. Patterson, F. et al 2010. Working memory deficits predict short-term smoking resumption following brief abstinence. Drug Alcohol Depend. 106: 61-64.
91. Carroll, M.E., J.J. Anker & J.L. Perry 2009. Modeling risk factors for nicotine and other drug abuse in the preclinical laboratory. Drug Alcohol Depend. 104 (Suppl 1): S70-S78.
92. Coffey, S.F. et al 2003. Impulsivity and rapid discounting of delayed hypothetical rewards in cocaine-dependent individuals. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 11: 18-25.
93. Ersche, K.D. et al 2008. Chronic cocaine but not chronic amphetamine use is associated with perseverative responding in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 197: 421-431.
94. Verdejo-Garcia, A.J., J.C. Perales & M. Perez-Garcia 2007. Cognitive impulsivity in cocaine and heroin polysubstance abusers. Addict. Behav. 32: 950-966.
95. Bornovalova, M.A. et al 2005. Differences in impulsivity and risk-taking propensity between primary users of crack cocaine and primary users of heroin in a residential substance-use program. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 13: 311-318.
96. Bickel, W.K., L.A. Giordano & G.J. Badger 2004. Risk-sensitive foraging theory elucidates risky choices made by heroin addicts. Addiction 99: 855-861.
97. Madden, G.J. et al 1997. Impulsive and self-control choices in opioid-dependent patients and non-drug-using control participants: drug and monetary rewards. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 5: 256-262.
98. Madden, G.J., W.K. Bickel & E.A. Jacobs 1999. Discounting of delayed rewards in opioid-dependent outpatients: exponential or hyperbolic discounting functions Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 7: 284-293.
99. Giordano, L.A. et al 2002. Mild opioid deprivation increases the degree that opioid-dependent outpatients discount delayed heroin and money. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 163: 174-182.
100. Mitchell, S.H. 2004. Effects of short-term nicotine deprivation on decision-making: delay, uncertainty and effort discounting. Nicotine. Tob. Res. 6: 819-828.
101. Field, M. et al 2006. Delay discounting and the behavioural economics of cigarette purchases in smokers: the effects of nicotine deprivation. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 186: 255-263.
102. Petry, N.M. 2001. Delay discounting of money and alcohol in actively using alcoholics, currently abstinent alcoholics, and controls. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 154: 243-250.
103. Rubio, G. et al 2008. The role of behavioral impulsivity in the development of alcohol dependence: a 4-year follow-up study. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 32: 1681-1687.
104. Lawrence, A.J. et al 2009. Impulsivity and response inhibition in alcohol dependence and problem gambling. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 207: 163-172.
105. Dom, G., W. Hulstijn & B. Sabbe 2006. Differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking between early- and late-onset alcoholics. Addict. Behav. 31: 298-308.
106. Skinner, M.D., H.J. Aubin & I. Berlin 2004. Impulsivity in smoking, nonsmoking, and ex-smoking alcoholics. Addict. Behav. 29: 973-978.
107. Adolphs, R. et al 1994. Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala. Nature 372: 669-672.
108. Morris, J.S. et al 1996. A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature 383: 812-815.
109. Kemmis, L. et al 2007. Impaired fear recognition in regular recreational cocaine users. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 194: 151-159.
110. Townshend, J.M. & T. Duka 2002. Patterns of alcohol drinking in a population of young social drinkers: a comparison of questionnaire and diary measures. Alcohol Alcohol 37: 187-192.
111. Stephens, D.N. et al 2005. Repeated ethanol exposure and withdrawal impairs human fear conditioning and depresses long-term potentiation in rat amygdala and hippocampus. Biol. Psychiatry 58: 392-400.
112. Martin, L. et al 2006. Enhanced recognition of facial expressions of disgust in opiate users receiving maintenance treatment. Addiction 101: 1598-1605.
113. Kornreich, C. et al 2003. Impaired emotional facial expression recognition in alcoholics, opiate dependence subjects, methadone maintained subjects and mixed alcohol-opiate antecedents subjects compared with normal controls. Psychiatry Res. 119: 251-260.
114. Leventhal, A.M. et al 2008. Subliminal processing of smoking-related and affective stimuli in tobacco addiction. Exp. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 16: 301-312.
115. Ersche, K.D. et al 2006. Profile of executive and memory function associated with amphetamine and opiate dependence. Neuropsychopharmacology 31: 1036-1047.
116. Gazdzinski, S. et al 2008. Chronic cigarette smoking modulates injury and short-term recovery of the medial temporal lobe in alcoholics. Psychiatry Res. 162: 133-145.
117. Canales, J.J. 2007. Adult neurogenesis and the memories of drug addiction. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 257: 261-270.
118. Otto, M.W., S.E. Bruce & T. Deckersbach 2005. Benzodiazepine use, cognitive impairment, and cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety disorders: issues in the treatment of a patient in need. J. Clin. Psychiatry 66 (Suppl 2): 34-38.
119. Bowery, N.G. 1987. Glycine-binding sites and NMDA receptors in brain. Nature 326: 338.
120. Hood, W.F., R.P. Compton & J.B. Monahan 1989. D-cycloserine: a ligand for the N-methyl-D-aspartate coupled glycine receptor has partial agonist characteristics. Neurosci. Lett. 98: 91-95.
121. Collingridge, G.L. & T.V. Bliss 1995. Memories of NMDA receptors and LTP. Trends Neurosci. 18: 54-56.
122. Kemp, A. & D. Manahan-Vaughan 2007. Hippocampal long-term depression: master or minion in declarative memory processes Trends Neurosci. 30: 111-118.
123. Dalton, G.L. et al 2008. Disruption of AMPA receptor endocytosis impairs the extinction, but not acquisition of learned fear. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 2416-2426.
124. Sofuoglu, M. 2010. Cognitive enhancement as a pharmacotherapy target for stimulant addiction. Addiction 105: 38-48.
125. Vervliet, B. 2008. Learning and memory in conditioned fear extinction: effects of D-cycloserine. Acta Psychol. (Amst) 127: 601-613.
126. Walker, D.L. et al 2002. Facilitation of conditioned fear extinction by systemic administration or intra-amygdala infusions of D-cycloserine as assessed with fear-potentiated startle in rats. J. Neurosci. 22: 2343-2351.
127. Ledgerwood, L., R. Richardson & J. Cranney 2003. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction of conditioned freezing. Behav. Neurosci. 117: 341-349.
128. Ledgerwood, L., R. Richardson & J. Cranney 2004. D-cycloserine and the facilitation of extinction of conditioned fear: consequences for reinstatement. Behav. Neurosci. 118: 505-513.
129. Davis, M. et al 2006. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction: translation from preclinical to clinical work. Biol. Psychiatry 60: 369-375.
130. Ledgerwood, L., R. Richardson & J. Cranney 2005. D-cycloserine facilitates extinction of learned fear: effects on reacquisition and generalized extinction. Biol. Psychiatry 57: 841-847.
131. Bouton, M.E. & R.C. Bolles 1979. Role of conditioned contextual stimuli in reinstatement of extinguished fear. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim Behav. Process 5: 368-378.
132. Pavlov, I.P. 1927. Conditioned reflexes. An Investigation of the Physiological Activity of the Cerebral Cortex. Oxford University Press. Oxford
133. Rescorla, R.A. & C.D. Heth 1975. Reinstatement of fear to an extinguished conditioned stimulus. J. Exp. Psychol. Anim Behav. Process 1: 88-96.
134. Woods, A.M. & M.E. Bouton 2006. D-cycloserine facilitates extinction but does not eliminate renewal of the conditioned emotional response. Behav. Neurosci. 120: 1159-1162.
135. Ressler, K.J. et al 2004. Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy: use of D-cycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 61: 1136-1144.
136. Hofmann, S.G. et al 2006. Augmentation of exposure therapy with D-cycloserine for social anxiety disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63: 298-304.
137. Guastella, A.J. et al 2008. A randomized controlled trial of D-cycloserine enhancement of exposure therapy for social anxiety disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 63: 544-549.
138. Kushner, M.G. et al 2007. D-cycloserine augmented exposure therapy for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 62: 835-838.
139. Wilhelm, S. et al 2008. Augmentation of behavior therapy with D-cycloserine for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 165: 335-341.
140. Otto, M.W. et al 2010. Efficacy of d-cycloserine for enhancing response to cognitive-behavior therapy for panic disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 67: 365-370.
141. Storch, E.A. et al 2007. D-cycloserine does not enhance exposure-response prevention therapy in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 22: 230-237.
142. Guastella, A.J. et al 2007. A randomized controlled trial of the effect of D-cycloserine on exposure therapy for spider fear. J. Psychiatr. Res. 41: 466-471.
143. Tzschentke, T.M. 2007. Measuring reward with the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm: update of the last decade. Addict. Biol. 12: 227-462.
144. Spealman, R.D. et al 1999. Pharmacological and environmental determinants of relapse to cocaine-seeking behavior. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 64: 327-336.
145. Carter, B.L. & S.T. Tiffany 1999. Meta-analysis of cue-reactivity in addiction research. Addiction 94: 327-340.
146. Botreau, F., G. Paolone & J. Stewart 2006. d-cycloserine facilitates extinction of a cocaine-induced conditioned place preference. Behav. Brain Res. 172: 173-178.
147. Paolone, G., F. Botreau & J. Stewart 2009. The facilitative effects of D-cycloserine on extinction of a cocaine-induced conditioned place preference can be long lasting and resistant to reinstatement. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 202: 403-409.
148. Kelley, J.B., K.L. Anderson & Y. Itzhak 2007. Long-term memory of cocaine-associated context: disruption and reinstatement. Neuroreport 18: 777-780.
149. Thanos, P.K. et al 2009. D-cycloserine accelerates the extinction of cocaine-induced conditioned place preference in C57bL/c mice. Behav. Brain Res. 199: 345-349.
150. Groblewski, P.A., K.M. Lattal & C.L. Cunningham 2009. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction and reconditioning of ethanol-seeking behavior in mice. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 33: 772-782.
151. Sunyer, B. et al 2008. Strain-dependent effects of cognitive enhancers in the mouse. Amino Acids 34: 485-495.
152. Myers, K.M. & W.A. Carlezon, Jr. 2010. D-cycloserine facilitates extinction of naloxone-induced conditioned place aversion in morphine-dependent rats. Biol. Psychiatry 67: 85-87.
153. Robbins, S.J. et al 1997. Relationships among physiological and self-report responses produced by cocaine-related cues. Addict. Behav. 22: 157-167.
154. Nic Dhonnchadha, B.A. et al 2010. D-cycloserine deters reacquisition of cocaine self-administration by augmenting extinction learning. Neuropsychopharmacology 35: 357-367.
155. Vengeliene, V., F. Kiefer & R. Spanagel 2008. D-cycloserine facilitates extinction of conditioned alcohol-seeking behaviour in rats. Alcohol Alcohol 43: 626-629.
156. Price, K.L. et al 2009. D-cycloserine and cocaine cue reactivity: preliminary findings. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse 35: 434-438.
157. Boje, K.M., G. Wong & P. Skolnick 1993. Desensitization of the NMDA receptor complex by glycinergic ligands in cerebellar granule cell cultures. Brain Res. 603: 207-214.
158. Parnas, A.S., M. Weber & R. Richardson 2005. Effects of multiple exposures to D-cycloserine on extinction of conditioned fear in rats. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 83: 224-231.
159. Werner-Seidler, A. & R. Richardson 2007. Effects of D-cycloserine on extinction: consequences of prior exposure to imipramine. Biol. Psychiatry 62: 1195-1197.
160. Dash, P.K., A.E. Hebert & J.D. Runyan 2004. A unified theory for systems and cellular memory consolidation. Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev. 45: 30-37.
161. D'Souza, D.C. et al 2000. IV glycine and oral D-cycloserine effects on plasma and CSF amino acids in healthy humans. Biol. Psychiatry 47: 450-462.
162. Lee, J.L. et al 2009. D-cycloserine potentiates the reconsolidation of cocaine-associated memories. Learn. Mem. 16: 82-85.
163. Langton, J.M. & R. Richardson 2008. D-cycloserine facilitates extinction the first time but not the second time: an examination of the role of NMDA across the course of repeated extinction sessions. Neuropsychopharmacology 33: 3096-3102.
164. Otto, M.W. et al 2007. Clinical perspectives on the combination of D-cycloserine and cognitive-behavioral therapy for the treatment of anxiety disorders. CNS. Spectr. 12: 51-61.
165. McGaugh, J.L. & B. Roozendaal 2009. Drug enhancement of memory consolidation: historical perspective and neurobiological implications. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 202: 3-14.
166. Yang, Y.L. et al 2007. Glutamate NMDA receptors within the amygdala participate in the modulatory effect of glucocorticoids on extinction of conditioned fear in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 32: 1042-1051.
167. Stohr, T. et al 1999. Stress- and corticosteroid-induced modulation of the locomotor response to morphine in rats. Behav. Brain Res. 103: 85-93.
168. Hui, I.R. et al 2006. Posttraining handling facilitates memory for auditory-cue fear conditioning in rats. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 86: 160-163.
169. Guijarro, J.Z. et al 2007. Effects of brief and long maternal separations on the HPA axis activity and the performance of rats on context and tone fear conditioning. Behav. Brain Res. 184: 101-108.
170. Goeders, N.E. & D.M. Clampitt 2002. Potential role for the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in the conditioned reinforcer-induced reinstatement of extinguished cocaine seeking in rats. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 161: 222-232.
171. Otto, M.W. 1999. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for social anxiety disorder: model, methods, and outcome. J. Clin. Psychiatry 60 (Suppl 9): 14-19.
172. Kelamangalath, L., C.M. Seymour & J.J. Wagner 2009. D-serine facilitates the effects of extinction to reduce cocaine-primed reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. Neurobiol. Learn. Mem. 92: 544-551.
173. Nic Dhonnchadha, B.Á. et al 2010. Inhibiting glycine transporter-1: effects on extinction and reacquisition of cocaine self-administration. Abstracts of the 72nd Annual Meeting of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence.