Constructing the truth, dealing with dissent, domesticating the world: Governance in post-genocide Rwanda

African Affairs

Volumn 110, Issue 438, 2011, Pages 1-34

  Reyntjens, Filip ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ANTWERP   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

GENOCIDE; GOVERNANCE APPROACH; HUMAN RIGHTS; PARTY POLITICS; POLITICAL SYSTEM; POLITICAL VIOLENCE; STRATEGIC APPROACH;

RWANDA;

EID: 78650727754     PISSN: 00019909     EISSN: 14682621     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/afraf/adq075     Document Type: Article

References (174)

1. Stefaan Marysse, An Ansoms, and Danny Cassimon, 'The aid "darlings" and "orphans" of the Great Lakes Region in Africa', European Journal of Development Research 19, 3 (2007), pp. 433-58.
2. International Crisis Group, '"Consensual democracy" in post-genocide Rwanda: evaluating the March 2001 district elections' (Report, Nairobi and Brussels, 9 October 2001), p. 20.
3. The only noticeable exceptions are Phil Clark (University of Oxford) and William Schabas (National University of Ireland).
4. Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, 'Rwanda's application for membership of the Commonwealth: report and recommendations of the Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative' (August 2009).
5. These crimes took place mainly in Rwanda in 1994, in Zaïre/DRC in 1996-7, and again in Rwanda in 1997-8, as detailed in numerous reports by several UN bodies, Amnesty International, and Human Rights Watch. For an early survey of crimes against humanity committed by the RPF/RPA.
6. See Serge Desouter and Filip Reyntjens, 'Rwanda: les violation des droits de l'homme par le FPR/APR - plaidoyer pour une enquête approfondie' (Working Paper, Centre d'étude de la région des grands lacs d'Afrique, Antwerp, June 1995).
7. For a view on RPF abuse from within, see Abdul J. Ruzibiza, Rwanda: L'histoire secrète (Editions du Panama, Paris, 2005).
8. More recently, a major UN report has confirmed and complemented the data on RPA abuse in the DRC: UN High Commission for Human Rights, 'Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1993-2003: report of the mapping exercise documenting the most serious violations of human rights and international humanitarian law committed within the territory of the Democratic Republic of the Congo between March 1993 and June 2003' (Geneva, August 2010).
9. Kagame set up a Presidential Advisory Council (PAC) which includes CEOs of foreign companies, academics, and even the founder of Saddleback Church, Pastor Rick Warren. Tony Blair acts as an 'unpaid adviser' to the President. Kagame travels from one award ceremony to the next.
10. When Kagame received a Global Citizen Award in 2009, the statement of the Clinton Foundation read as follows: 'From crisis, President Kagame has forged a strong, unified and growing nation with the potential to become a model for the rest of Africa and the world'. Clinton Foundation, 'Former President Clinton announces winners of the Third Annual Clinton Global Citizen Awards' (23 September 2009), .
11. Statement by presidential spokesman, Kigali, 7 December 1997.
12. Agence France-Presse (AFP) (Geneva, 20 April 2001).
13. Gérard Prunier, 'Rwanda: the social, political and economic situation in June 1997' (Report, Writenet (UK), July 1997).
14. Wilson Rutayisire, 'Gérald [sic] Prunier: a eulogy for genocide' (Ministry of Information, Kigali, 24 October 1997).
15. Reuters (Kigali, 7 February 1997).
16. Reporters sans Frontières (RFS) and Internatonal Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX) (Communiqué, Toronto, 2 December 1997). In 'Rwanda: enquête sur la terreur tutsie', published in Libération on 27 February 1996, Smith had documented crimes against humanity and war crimes committed by the RPF.
17. 'La BBC et la VOA accusées par Kigali de "détruire l'unité des Rwandais"' (AFP, Kigali, 19 August 2008).
18. Amnesty International, 'The troubled course of justice' (London, 26 April 2000).
19. Human Rights Watch, 'Rwanda: the search for security and human rights abuses' (New York, April 2000).
20. Pan-African News Agency (PANA) (Kigali, 29 April 2000).
21. Human Rights Watch, 'Eastern Congo ravaged: killing civilians and silencing protest' (New York, May 2000).
22. The Monitor (Kampala), 13 May 2000. Interestingly, during a visit to Kigali the UK Minister for Overseas Development Cooperation, Clare Short, made exactly the same accusations on Rwandan television.
23. After having been refused access at a land border crossing with Burundi in early September 2008, Des Forges landed at Kigali airport on 3 December to attend an international conference on judicial assistance, but was prevented from leaving the plane and forced to return to Brussels. General Prosecutor Ngoga later justified the measure by stating that 'HRW's interference only benefited the génocidaires'.
24. 'HRW chief meets government officials', Sunday Times (Kigali), 22 March 2009.
25. Amnesty International, 'Democratic Republic of Congo. Rwandese-controlled East: devastating human toll' (London, 19 June 2001).
26. Government of Rwanda (GOR), 'Response to the Amnesty International Report, "Democratic Republic of Congo. Rwandese-controlled East: devastating human toll"' (Kigali, n.d. [2001]).
27. Human Rights Watch, 'Preparing for elections: tightening control in the name of unity' (New York, May 2003).
28. Amnesty International, 'Rwanda: run-up to presidential elections marred by threats and harassment' (London, 22 August 2003).
29. GOR, 'Response to Amnesty International's report on Rwanda's forthcoming elections' (Kigali, n.d.).
30. International Panel of Eminent Personalities to Investigate the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda and the Surrounding Events, 'The Preventable Genocide' (Addis Ababa, 7 July 2000).
31. We were part of the editorial committee for the report; the Rwandan government unsuccessfully attempted to have us excluded.
32. 'Rwandan government protests against new report on the genocide' (News report, Africa Online, 24 August 2000).
33. 'Présidentielle: le Rwanda mécontent des critiques européennes sur le scrutin' (AFP, Kigali, 28 August 2003).
34. 'Enough political space - Kagame', The New Times (Kigali), 27 January 2006.
35. 'Rwanda Response to the 2005 State Department Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, released by the Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor on March 8, 2006' (Kigali, 2006).
36. United Nations, Security Council, 'Final Report of the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo' (S/2008/773, 12 December 2008).
37. 'Statement by the Government of Rwanda on the report of the UN Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo' (Kigali, 15 December 2008).
38. 'UN report "part of west conspiracy against Rwanda"' (Rwanda News Agency, 15 December 2008).
39. UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, 'Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1993-2003. Report of the Mapping Exercise' (UNHCHR, August 2010).
40. Letter dated 5 August 2010 from Louise Mushikiwabo to Ban ki-Moon. This was not a hollow threat as Rwanda contributes several thousand troops to the UNAMID mission in Darfur.
41. For early examples, see the following reports by Human Rights Watch: 'Rwanda: a new catastrophe?' (December 1994).
42. 'Rwanda: the crisis continues' (April 1995).
43. 'Local Rwandan leaders assassinated' (August 1995).
44. 'HRW and FIDH condemn new killings in Rwanda' (July 1996).
45. See also Ruzibiza, Rwanda.
46. MDR, 'Contribution du Mouvement Démocratique Républicain dans la recherche de solutions aux problèmes que rencontre le Rwanda' (Party document, 23 May 1998).
47. 'Rwanda leader Kagame warns opponents on genocide anniversary' (AFP, Kigali, 7 April 2002).
48. The RPF's limited belief in elections was made clear in an internal document produced before the genocide: 'The strong foundations put in place during the transitional period must allow the Front to organize the timely departure of Habyarimana Juvénal with or without elections (these need to be organized at the moment of the RPF's choosing, in the light of the situation in the country).' RPF, 'Objectifs du Front', translated from French. This text is not dated, but it was probably written in February 1994. While it is not signed, the style suggests that the author may well be Tito Rutaremara, a leading RPF ideologue belonging to the (small) progressive wing of the party.
49. Speech by President Kagame on International Water Day, Rebero, Bwisige District, Byumba, 31 March 2003.
50. Government communiqué, 'Le gouvernement approuve la dissolution du parti MDR' (Agence Rwandaise d'Information, Kigali, 19 May 2003). At the time of this decision, the Prime Minister and the Minister of the Interior were members of the MDR.
51. On this episode, see Thierry Cruvellier et al., Augustin Cyiza: Un homme libre au Rwanda (Karthala, Paris, 2004).
52. '"Seek broad, long-term solutions", Kagame urges Congolese', Kigali, 13 April 2002, interview with Marc Hoogsteyns, .
53. La Nouvelle Relève (Kigali), 31 May 1996.
54. International Crisis Group, 'Rwanda at the end of the transition' (ICG, Africa Report No. 53, 13 November 2002), p. 2.
55. USAID, 'Rwanda democracy and governance assessment' (November 2002), p. 46.
56. LDGL, 'Dynamiques de paix et logiques de guerre. Rapport annuel sur la situation des droits de l'homme dans la région des grands lacs. Année 2002' (May 2003).
57. International Crisis Group, '"Consensual democracy"', p. 12.
58. Mission d'observation électorale de l'Union Européenne, 'Rwanda. Election présidentielle 25 août 2003. Elections législatives 29 et 30 septembre, 2 octobre 2003' (Final Report); European Union Election Observer Mission, 'Republic of Rwanda, Legislative Elections to the Chamber of Deputies 15-18 September 2008, Final Report'.
59. Mission d'observation électorale de l'Union Européenne, 'Rwanda. Election présidentielle', p. 4.
60. This calculation by members of the EU observation team was based on a very robust sample size of 24.96 percent of the total vote (which gave a standard error for the smallest sample of under 1 percent).
61. While the observer mission noted a great number of irregularities in its report, the mission's chairman, British MEP Michael Cashman, refused to make this particularly damning information public.
62. International Crisis Group, '"Consensual democracy"', p. 23.
63. 'Rwanda. Elections en trompe-l'oeil', Le Vif-L'Express (Brussels), 4 August 2008.
64. A number of opposition movements have been active abroad during the last fifteen years.
65. Several high-ranking officers were arrested or fled the country, and there were recurrent rumours of a coup d'état.
66. For an overview, see Filip Reyntjens, 'Chronique politique du Rwanda, 2009-2010' in Stefaan Marysse, Filip Reyntjens, and Stef Vandeginste (eds), L'Afrique des grands lacs. Annuaire 2009-2010 (L'Harmattan, Paris, 2010), pp. 273-98.
67. A survey of these practices can be found in Front Line Rwanda, 'Disappearances, arrests, threats, intimidation of human rights defenders 2001-2004' (Dublin, 2005). In addition to human rights defenders, the report highlights the persecution of rural defenders, independent journalists, and NGOs.
68. International Crisis Group, '"Consensual democracy"', p. 20.
69. LDGL, 'La problématique de la liberté d'expression au Rwanda' (Report, Kigali, December 2001).
70. Johan Pottier, 'Land reform for peace? Rwanda's 2005 land law in context', Journal of Agrarian Change 6, 4 (2006), pp. 509-37, p. 510.
71. See also Paul Gready, '"You're either with us or against us": civil society and policy making in post-genocide Rwanda', African Affairs 109, 437 (2010), pp. 637-57.
72. See, for example, Human Rights Watch, 'Rwanda: parliament seeks to abolish rights group' (New York, 2 July 2004).
73. Amnesty International, 'Rwanda: deeper into the abyss - waging war on civil society' (London, 5 July 2004).
74. 'Déclaration du conseil des ministres à l'issue de sa réunion au Village Urugwiro, le 17 septembre 2004, relative au rapport de la Chambres des Députés sur les tueries de Gikongoro et de l'idéologie génocidaire au Rwanda' (Kigali, 18 September 2004).
75. For an excellent survey of the fate of the media under RPF rule, see Lars Waldorf, 'Censorship and propaganda in post-genocide Rwanda' in Allan Thompson (ed.), The Media and the Rwanda Genocide (Pluto Press and Fountain Publishers, Kampala, 2007), pp. 404-16.
76. International Crisis Group, 'Rwanda at the end of the transition', p. 14.
77. Reporters sans Frontières, 'Rwanda. Discreet and targeted pressure: President Kagame is a predator of press freedom' (Paris, 7 November 2001).
78. LDGL, 'La problématique de la liberté d'expression'.
79. Reporters sans Frontières, 'Rwanda: le chef de l'état inaugure une salve d'attaques verbales des autorités contre les journalistes' (31 January 2006).
80. 'Pressure on VOA radio mounts from government' (RNA, Kigali, 19 June 2009).
81. 'BBC risks indefinite ban from Rwanda' (RNA, Kigali, 26 June 2009).
82. Elizabeth Sidiropoulos, 'Democratisation and militarisation in Rwanda: eight years after the genocide', African Security Review 11, 3 (2002), pp. 77-87.
83. République du Rwanda, Commission nationale pour l'unité et la réconciliation, 'Manuel pour les camps de solidarité et autres formations' (Manual, Kigali, October 2006), p. 120.
84. Human Rights Watch, 'Law and reality: progress in judicial reform in Rwanda' (24 July 2008), p. 40.
85. Amnesty International, 'Report 2010: the state of the world's human rights', London, p. 273.
86. For details, see Filip Reyntjens, 'Constitution-making in situations of extreme crisis: the case of Rwanda and Burundi', Journal of African Law 40, 2 (1996), pp. 236-9.
87. According to a USAID document, the Forum 'has served as a means of limiting the range of allowable ideas among politicians', and a source of the report compared it to the central committee of a single party. USAID, 'Rwanda democracy', p. 50. According to the experience of the former Speaker of Parliament Joseph Sebarenzi, '[c]reating the Forum of Political Parties was a way for Kagame to remove members of Parliament who stood in his way', and he offers many examples of how this worked.
88. Joseph Sebarenzi, God Sleeps in Rwanda: a journey of transformation (Atria Books, New York, NY, 2009), pp. 146-51.
89. International Crisis Group, '"Consensual democracy"', p. 7.
90. International Crisis Group, 'Rwanda at the end of the transition', p. 11.
91. Bert Ingelaere, 'Peasants, power and ethnicity: a bottom-up perspective on Rwanda's political transition', African Affairs 109, 435 (2010), pp. 287-91.
92. International Crisis Group, '"Consensual democracy"', p. 7. This information was based on interviews with a former RPF official, a youth district candidate and a NURC official.
93. Human Rights Watch, 'Law and reality', p. 46.
94. The report also contains many examples of executive interference in the judicial process, pp. 46-69.
95. Jeroen Corduwener, 'Wederopbouw in Rwanda, met ijzeren hand' ('Reconstruction in Rwanda, with an iron fist'), NRC-Handelsblad, 27 March 2002.
96. International Crisis Group, 'Rwanda at the end of the transition', p. 5.
97. The same report quotes constitutional commission member Jacques Kabale as pointing out that 'the commission has the merit of asking the opinions of an uneducated population', p. 7.
98. RPF, 'Objectifs du Front'.
99. 'Rwanda slams decisions to free Jean-Bosco Barayagwiza' (Hirondelle News Agency, Arusha, 6 November 1999).
100. 'ICTR Prosecutor to ask for review of Appeal Court decision, as Rwanda refuses her a visa' (Hirondelle News Agency, Arusha, 22 November 1999).
101. 'UN Prosecutor says Appeal Court decision on Barayagwiza violated victims' rights' (Hirondelle News Agency, Arusha, 22 February 2000).
102. Chris McGreal, 'Genocide Tribunal ready to indict first Tutsis: Rwanda is blocking investigations of former rebels despite pledges, Prosecutor says', The Guardian, 5 April 2002.
103. 'UN Prosecutor rallies UK support' (Hirondelle News Agency, Arusha, 3 December 2002).
104. 'Rwanda questions usefulness of UN genocide court' (Report from the UN, Reuters, 24 July 2002.
105. Gouvernement du Rwanda, 'Communiqué de presse' (Kigali, 21 November 2002).
106. Quoted in 'I was sacked as Rwanda genocide prosecutor for challenging President, says Del Ponte', The Guardian, 13 September 2003.
107. 'Le TPIR n'a pas renoncé à poursuivre les membres de l'APR, selon un porte-parole' (Hirondelle News Agency, Arusha, 1 July 2003).
108. 'Le Rwanda veut écarter Mme Del Ponte de son poste de procureur (porte-parole)' (AFP, The Hague, 24 July 2003).
109. This shameful saga is detailed in Carla Del Ponte, La Caccia. Io e I criminali di guerre (Feltrinelli Editore, Milan, 2008), pp. 236-53.
110. Florence Hartmann, Paix et châtiment: les guerres secrètes de la politique et de la justice internationales (Flammarion, Paris, 2007), pp. 262-77.
111. Speech at the opening of the Rwanda National Security Workshop with Civil Society, Kigali, 8 August 2002.
112. 'Le ministre belge des Affaires étrangères explique sa méthode', Le Soir (Brussels), 31 August 2002.
113. AFP, Kigali, 11 September 2002.
114. AFP, Kigali, 29 January 1998.
115. AFP, Kigali, 4 February 1998.
116. 'Rwanda: Kigali critique la proposition belge de médiation avec les FDLR' (Panapress, Kigali, 30 April 2008).
117. For more details, see Bert Ingelaere, 'Do we understand life after genocide? Center and periphery in the construction of knowledge in postgenocide Rwanda', African Studies Review 53, 1 (2010), pp. 49-50.
118. UNDP, 'Turning Vision 2020 into reality: from recovery to sustainable human development' (UNDP, 2007).
119. 'I never read UN report before launch - Musoni', The New Times (Kigali), 24 August 2007.
120. 'Hunger: government refutes WFP claims', The New Times (Kigali), 14 May 2006. Interestingly, during the same period, the Burundian government recognized the problem in a region that straddles both countries, and requested international assistance for famine victims. 'Nkurunziza urges Burundians to assist famine victims' (PANA, Bujumbura, 20 February 2006).
121. 'Report d'une manifestation du PAM à Kigali contre la faim' (PANA, Kigali, 22 May 2006).
122. AFP (Brussels, 10 March 2004).
123. Reuters (Kigali, 16 March 2004).
124. 'France blamed as Rwanda marks genocide date', The Guardian, 8 April 2004.
125. République du Rwanda, Commission nationale indépendante chargée de rassembler les preuves montrant l'implication de l'Etat français dans le génocide perpétré au Rwanda en 1994, 'Rapport final' (Kigali, 15 November 2007).
126. Republic of Rwanda, Independent Committee of experts charged with investigation into the crash on 6 April 1994 of the Falcon 50 Aeroplane, registration number 9XR-NN, 'Report of the investigation into the causes and circumstances of and responsibility for the attack of 06/04/1994 against the Falcon 50 Rwandan Presidential Aeroplane, Registration number 9XR-NN' (Kigali, 20 April 2009).
127. See Filip Reyntjens, 'A fake inquiry on a major event: analysis of the Mutsinzi report on the 6th April 1994 attack on the Rwandan President's aeroplane' (IOB Working Paper 2010-7, Institute of Development Policy and Management, Antwerp, 2010).
128. The Rwandan government immediately retaliated by expelling the German ambassador in Kigali and by recalling the Rwandan ambassador in Berlin. However Germany had not done anything but act upon a European arrest warrant.
129. Republic of Rwanda, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation, 'Rwanda government reaction to the Spanish judge indictments' (Kigali, 9 February 2008).
130. 'Karugarama accuses judge of snubbing international law', The New Times (Kigali), 9 February 2008.
131. 'Sue Spanish judge, parties urge government', The New Times (Kigali), 25 February 2008.
132. 'Rwanda's Kagame blasts Spanish genocide indictments' (Reuters, Kigali, 1 April 2008).
133. See Filip Reyntjens, The Great African War: Congo and regional geopolitics, 1996-2006 (Cambridge University Press, New York, NY, 2009).
134. AFP (Nairobi, 29 January 1997).
135. John Pomfret, 'Defence Minister says arms, troops supplied for anti-Mobutu drive', Washington Post, 9 July 1997.
136. Meeting with the Rwandan community, Brussels, 15 June 1997 (based on notes taken by two persons present).
137. Privat Rutazibwa, 'Crises des Grands Lacs: la solution viendra du Rwanda' (ARI/RNA, No. 104, Kigali, 20-26 August 1998).
138. Bernard Leloup, 'Les rébellions congolaises et leurs parrains dans l'ordre politique régional' in Filip Reyntjens and Stefaan Marysse (eds), L'Afrique des grands lacs. Annuaire 2001-2002 (L'Harmattan, Paris, 2002), pp. 83-4.
139. Jeune Afrique/L'Intelligent, No. 2155-6, 29 April-12 May 2002.
140. Quoted by Bernard Leloup, 'Les rébellions congolaises', pp. 95-6.
141. Nik Gowing, 'New challenges and problems for information management in complex emergencies: ominous lessons from the Great Lakes and eastern Zaire in late 1996 and early 1997'.
142. (Paper presented at conference on Dispatches from Disaster Zones, Oxford, 28 May 1998), p. 4.
143. Johan Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda: Conflict, survival and disinformation in the late twentieth century (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002), p. 55.
144. Le Monde, 26 October 1996.
145. Washington Post, 14 July 1998.
146. Claudine Vidal, 'Les commémorations du génocide au Rwanda', Les Temps Modernes 56, 613 (2001), p. 44.
147. Johan Pottier, Re-Imagining Rwanda, p. 203.
148. Jon Swain, 'The riddle of the Rwandan assassin's trail', The Sunday Times, 4 April 2004.
149. This is the title of a documentary film directed by Julien Elie on the murder in Nairobi of Seth Sendashonga, a former RPF leader: Celui qui savait (Alter-Ciné, Montreal, 2001).
150. Ruzibiza, Rwanda, pp. 420-41.
151. Sebarenzi, God Sleeps in Rwanda; Patrick Habamenshi, Rwanda, Where Souls Turn to Dust: My journey from exile to legacy (iUniverse, New York, NY, 2009).
152. 'Gen. Nyamwasa responds to Kagame', Sunday Monitor (Kampala), 30 May 2010.
153. Edith R. Sanders, 'The Hamitic hypothesis: its origin and function in time perspective', Journal of African History 10, 4 (1969), pp. 521-32.
154. This presentation can be found in many statements and documents. See, for example, National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, 'The Rwandan conflict: origin, development, exit strategies' (Study commissioned by the NURC, Kigali, 2004).
155. Jan Vansina, Antecedents to Modern Rwanda: The Nyiginya Kingdom (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, 2004), pp. 197-8.
156. Human Rights Watch, 'Law and reality', p. 36.
157. 'Rwanda: Apprendre de l'expérience du génocide rwandais' (ARI, Kigali, 23 July 2008), italics added.
158. President P. Kagame, 'Preface', in Phil Clark and Zachary D. Kaufman (eds), After Genocide: Transitional justice, post-conflict reconstruction and reconciliation in Rwanda and beyond (Hurst, London, 2008), pp. xxi-xxvi.
159. Filip Reyntjens, 'Rwanda, ten years on: from genocide to dictatorship', African Affairs 103, 411 (2004), pp. 177-210, 188-9.
160. Front Line Rwanda, 'Disappearances', p. 90.
161. République du Rwanda, Chambre des députés, 'Rapport de la Commission parlementaire ad hoc créée en date du 20 janvier 2004 chargée d'examiner les tueries perpétrées dans la province de Gikongoro, l'idéologie génocidaire et ceux qui la propagent partout au Rwanda', adopted by the Chamber on 30 June 2004 (unofficial translation from Kinyarwanda).
162. Habamenshi, Rwanda, p. 75.
163. Robert E. Gribbin, In the Aftermath of Genocide: The US role in Rwanda (iUniverse, New York, NY, 2005), p. 280.
164. Sebarenzi, God Sleeps in Rwanda, p. 82.
165. Term coined by René Lemarchand, 'Burundi: The politics of ethnic amnesia' in Helen Fein (ed.), Genocide Watch (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1992), pp. 70-86.
166. A former police officer asked to assess the effectiveness of reforms in the justice system told Human Rights Watch: 'You can't understand. You see what's on paper but you don't know the truth....You foreigners are easily tricked.' Human Rights Watch, 'Law and reality', p. 44.
167. Bert Ingelaere, 'Does the truth pass across the fire without burning? Transitional justice and its discontents in Rwanda's gacaca courts' (IOB Discussion Paper, Antwerp, 2007), p. 29.
168. Saskia van Hoyweghen, 'The urgency of land and agrarian reform in Rwanda', African Affairs 98, 392 (1999), pp. 353-72, p. 366.
169. Susan Thomson, 'Getting re-educated in Rwanda's solidarity camps' in Scott Straus and Lars Waldorf (eds), Reconstructing Rwanda: State building and human rights after mass violence (Wisconsin University Press, Madison, WI, forthcoming).
170. James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden transcripts (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT, 1992).
171. Front Line Rwanda, 'Disappearances', pp. 98-9.
172. They identify five critical factors: institutional legacy (the ancient roots of Rwandan political culture and institutions include strong state-centred social control); the regime's pathway to power (its military and ideological background); the terms of settlement of the conflict (the RPF came to power with a relatively free hand); the base of political support (which is narrow and still narrowing); and the international environment (the permissive international community).
173. Scott Straus and Lars Waldorf, 'Introduction: seeing like a postconflict state' in Straus and Waldorf (eds), Reconstructing Rwanda.
174. Peter Uvin, Human Rights and Development (Kumarian Press, Bloomfield, CT, 2004), pp. 116-17.