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This objective is now found in Article 208 in the Treaty of Lisbon, on, It was originally formulated in the Maastricht Treaty, Article 130, 38, 25 August
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This objective is now found in Article 208 in the Treaty of Lisbon, on 'The functioning of the European Union'. It was originally formulated in the Maastricht Treaty, Article 130, 38, available at: http://www.eurotreaties.com/maastrichtec.pdf (25 August 2010).
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(2010)
The Functioning of the European Union
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2
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85044982147
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Mission impossible: The European Union and Policy Coherence for development
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Maurizio Carbone, 'Mission impossible: the European Union and Policy Coherence for Development', Journal of European Integration 30 (3) (2008), 323-42.
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(2008)
Journal of European Integration
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Carbone, M.1
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European Commission
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European Commission (2007); European Commission, (2009).
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(2007)
European Commission
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16
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85044912710
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The European Union's common agricultural policy and developing countries: The struggle for coherence
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Alan Matthews, 'The European Union's common agricultural policy and developing countries: the struggle for coherence', Journal of European Integration 30 (3) 2008, 381-99.
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Journal of European Integration
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Matthews, A.1
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Note
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The argument that developing country consumers can benefit from the subsidisation of European agriculture through lower prices is discussed later in the paper.
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19
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An Exercise in Mutual Cooperation: The Second Inter-Party Government, the American Embassy and the Establishment of The Agricultural Institute, 1954-57
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For more information on the US Marshal Plan in Ireland, see
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For more information on the US Marshal Plan in Ireland, see Paul Loftus, 'An exercise in mutual cooperation: the Second Inter-Party Government, the American embassy and the establishment of the agricultural institute, 1954-57'.
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Loftus, P.1
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20
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ISIA 21, For more on the strategic framework under which EU structural funds are currently allocated in Ireland see, (25 August 2010)
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ISIA 21 (2010). For more on the strategic framework under which EU structural funds are currently allocated in Ireland see 'The National Strategic Reference Framework for Ireland (2007-2013)', available at: http://eustructuralfunds.gov.ie/files/Documents/NationalStrategicReferenceFramework200713.pdf (25 August 2010).
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The National Strategic Reference Framework for Ireland (2007-2013)
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21
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84861668112
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Sojourns and software: Internationally mobile human capital and high tech industry development in India, Ireland and Israel
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in A. Arora and A. Gambardella (eds), Oxford
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Devesh Kapur and John McHale, 'Sojourns and software: internationally mobile human capital and high tech industry development in India, Ireland and Israel' in A. Arora and A. Gambardella (eds) Underdogs to tigers: the rise and growth of the software industry in some emerging economies (Oxford, 2005).
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Underdogs to Tigers: The Rise and Growth of the Software Industry in Some Emerging Economies
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Kapur, D.1
McHale, J.2
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22
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Note
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A high discount rate means that current costs and benefits are accorded much greater importance in policymakers' minds than future costs and benefits.
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Note
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In the typical version of the prisoner's dilemma problem, both countries receive a payoff of two for not cooperating, with a payoff of three on offer for each country if they cooperate. If one country chooses to cooperate and the other defects the payoffs are one and four respectively. Unless there are strong beliefs that the other country will choose to cooperate, the rational strategy for a country is to choose non-cooperation.
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24
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Note
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A political economy reading of the role of the WTO would recognise that it is an institution that can be used to provide national politicians with political cover if they wish to resist populist pressures towards detrimental protectionism. The WTO trade agreements do indeed appear to have played such a role in the current global crisis, in contrast to the descent into global protectionism seen over the course of the Great Depression of the 1930s.
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26
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Diluting lobbies and unleashing growth
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in R. O'Donnell (ed.), Dublin
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Garret FitzGerald, 'Diluting lobbies and unleashing growth', in R. O'Donnell (ed.) Europe: the Irish experience, 111-22 (Dublin, 2000).
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FitzGerald, G.1
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28
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Note
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The early adoption by Ireland of full decoupling (where farm payments are no longer linked to production) and the recent cessation of Irish sugar production-which means the country no longer competes in a product where developing countries have a clear comparative advantage due to lower production costs-mean, however, that Irish policy has been shifting in a more PCD-consistent direction.
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29
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0008041171
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Still recognisably pluralist? State-farmer relations in Ireland
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in R. Hill and M. Marsh (eds), Dublin
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Neil Collins, 'Still recognisably pluralist? State-farmer relations in Ireland', in R. Hill and M. Marsh (eds) Modern Irish democracy (Dublin, 1993).
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Modern Irish Democracy
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Collins, N.1
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Beyond clientelism: Agricultural networks in Ireland and the EU
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and
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and Maura Adshead, 'Beyond clientelism: agricultural networks in Ireland and the EU', West European Politics 19 (3) (1996), 583-608.
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Adshead, M.1
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Note
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Chubb quotes approvingly from Magill magazine that 'Ministers for Agriculture have, since Ireland's entry into the EEC, become Ministers for Farmers!'
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33
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'Veto word takes IFA back from the Lisbon cliff', 7 June
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Irish Farmers Journal Newspaper, 'Veto word takes IFA back from the Lisbon cliff', 7 June 2008.
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Irish Farmers Journal Newspaper
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35
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The economic consequences of the Doha Round for Ireland
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Spring
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Alan Matthews and Keith Walsh, 'The economic consequences of the Doha Round for Ireland', Economic and Social Review 37 (1) (Spring, 2006), 17-22.
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Economic and Social Review
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Matthews, A.1
Walsh, K.2
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Note
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The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesises that the relationship between per capita income and the use of natural resources, the emission of waste or in this case carbon emissions may have an inverted U-shape.
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37
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2 emissions: A nonparametric panel approach
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Evidence of this tension between industrialisation in developing countries and carbon emissions is documented in
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2 emissions: a nonparametric panel approach', Journal of Public Economics 90 (2006) 1347-63.
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Journal of Public Economics
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Azomahou, T.1
Laisney, F.2
van Phu, N.3
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38
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78650525297
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Note
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Assessing growth in carbon emissions per unit of GDP or by population represents alternative approaches to assessing the evolution of carbon intensity. In both cases, the broad picture remains similar. CO2 emissions per person increased by 3.4% in OECD countries and 24.9% in non-OECD countries over the period 1990-2007. With the exception of China where emissions per GDP PPP fell by 47.7 % between 1990-2007, the more developed regions fared better; European Union 27 (-33.2%), USA (-27 %), Asia (-10.4 %), Africa (-8.8 %), Latin America (-4.7 %) and Middle East (+17.9%).
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39
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Policy Research Working Paper 4682, World Bank, Washington
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Donald Mitchell, 'A note on rising food prices', Policy Research Working Paper 4682, World Bank, (Washington, 2008).
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A Note on Rising Food Prices
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Mitchell, D.1
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Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, World Resources Institute, Washington
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Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 'Ecosystems and human well-being: biodiversity synthesis', World Resources Institute (Washington, 2005).
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Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis
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41
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Natural capital, resource dependency, and poverty in developing countries: The problem of "dualism within dualism"
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in R. Lopez and M. A. Toman (eds), (New York, 2006)
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Edward B. Barbier, 'Natural capital, resource dependency, and poverty in developing countries: the problem of "dualism within dualism"', in R. Lopez and M. A. Toman (eds), Economic development and environmental sustainability, new policy options (New York, 2006), 23-59.
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Economic Development and Environmental Sustainability, New Policy Options
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Barbier, E.B.1
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42
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ABIA Scoping Report Background Report, UCD School of Geography and Planning, Dublin
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Susana Ferreira, 'Ireland and the developing world: environment, climate change, transport and energy', ABIA Scoping Report Background Report, UCD School of Geography and Planning, (Dublin, 2008).
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Ireland and The Developing World: Environment, Climate Change, Transport and Energy
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Ferreira, S.1
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Note
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Rodrik argues: 'The consensus can be crudely expressed in terms of a number of dos and don'ts: demonopolize trade; streamline the import regime, reduce red tape and implement transparent customs procedures; replace quantitative restrictions with tariffs; avoid extreme variation in tariff rates and excessively high rates of effective protection; allow exporters duty-free access to imported inputs; refrain from large doses of anti-export bias; do not tax export crops too highly.'
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0003537214
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NBER Working Paper No. 6562, (Cambridge, MA, 1998), 25 August
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Dani Rodrik, 'Trade policy and economic performance in Sub-Saharan Africa', NBER Working Paper No. 6562, (Cambridge, MA, 1998), available at: http://www.nber.org/papers/w6562 (25 August 2010).
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Rodrik, D.1
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The politics of trade liberalization
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in Frimpong-Ansah, J.H., Kanbur, S.M.R. and P. Svedberg, eds, (Manchester, New York)
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Henry Bienen, 'The politics of trade liberalization' in Frimpong-Ansah, J.H., Kanbur, S.M.R. and P. Svedberg, eds, Trade and development in Sub-Saharan Africa, (Manchester, New York, 1991), 76.
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Trade and Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
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Bienen, H.1
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46
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The political economy of nontariff barriers: A crossnational analysis
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Edward Mansfield and Marc L. Busch, 'The political economy of nontariff barriers: a crossnational analysis', International Organization 49 (4) (1995), 723-49: 747.
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International Organization
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Mansfield, E.1
Busch, M.L.2
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47
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Note
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Discussion on these issues began at the 1996 Ministerial Conference in Singapore. Following the acrimonious collapse of the Cancún Ministerial Conference in 2003, the 'July 2004 package' that emerged from the General Council session held just under a year later attempted to set the Doha Round negotiations back on track by agreeing to begin negotiations on trade facilitation and dropping the three more controversial subjects from the WTO current work programme.
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Note
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Developing countries and many NGOs argued furthermore that the WTO is not the appropriate forum in which to address the Singapore issues.
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50
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Multilateral trade cooperation: What next?
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Bernard Hoekman and David Vines, 'Multilateral trade cooperation: what next?', Oxford Review of Economic Policy 23 (3) (2007) 311-34.
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Oxford Review of Economic Policy
, vol.23
, Issue.3
, pp. 311-334
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Hoekman, B.1
Vines, D.2
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51
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Regulatory standards in the WTO: Comparing intellectual property rights with competition policy, environmental protection, and core labour standards
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though the contrary position is argued by
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though the contrary position is argued by Keith E. Maskus, 'Regulatory standards in the WTO: comparing intellectual property rights with competition policy, environmental protection, and core labour standards', World Trade Review 1 (2) (2002),135-52.
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World Trade Review
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, pp. 135-152
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Maskus, K.E.1
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52
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35848959087
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Five hypotheses concerning the fate of the Singapore issues in the Doha Round
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and by
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and by Simon J. Evenett, 'Five hypotheses concerning the fate of the Singapore issues in the Doha Round', Oxford Review of Economic Policy 23 (3) (2007), 392-414.
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(2007)
Oxford Review of Economic Policy
, vol.23
, Issue.3
, pp. 392-414
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Evenett, S.J.1
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Note
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The shortage of institutional capacity in developing countries was a main rationale for their resistance to the introduction of these new issues onto the WTO agenda.
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Implementation of Uruguay round commitments: The development challenge
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see e.g
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see e.g. Michael J. Finger and Philip Schuler, 'Implementation of Uruguay round commitments: the development challenge', World Economy, 23 (4) (2000) 511-25.
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Finger, M.J.1
Schuler, P.2
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55
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Developing countries at Doha: A political economy analysis
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Note
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Panagariya cites a number of other valid reasons why developing countries have been resistant to the idea of an agreement including uncertainty over future benefits, the greater burden on developing countries in implementing a multilateral agreement, exposure to trade sanctions for non-compliance in a timely manner and concern about acceding to a multilateral agreement on portfolio investment due to the increased risk of sudden capital flight, Arvind Panagariya, 'Developing countries at Doha: a political economy analysis', World Economy, 25 (9) (2002), 1205-33.
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World Economy
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Panagariya, A.1
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According to the World Bank, the rights to some 50 million hectares in Africa alone have either been acquired since 2006 or are under negotiation, World Bank, 7 September, Washington, DC
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According to the World Bank, the rights to some 50 million hectares in Africa alone have either been acquired since 2006 or are under negotiation, World Bank, 'Rising global interest in farmland: can It yield sustainable and equitable benefits?', (7 September 2010, Washington, DC).
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(2010)
Rising Global Interest in Farmland: Can it Yield Sustainable and Equitable Benefits?
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Note
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Evenett also points out that proponents of a multilateral framework on competition policy acknowledge that exceptions should be granted in the event of a substantial clash between the proposed obligations and national development policy so that, even if there is an encroachment on useful policy space, solutions are envisaged that did not undermine development prospects.
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see, Five hypotheses concerning the fate of the Singapore issues in the Doha Round
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see Simon J. Evenett, 'Five hypotheses concerning the fate of the Singapore issues in the Doha Round', Oxford Review of Economic Policy 23 (3) (2007), 392-414.
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(2007)
Oxford Review of Economic Policy
, vol.23
, Issue.3
, pp. 392-414
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Evenett, S.J.1
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Woolcock argues furthermore that the commitments involved in greater transparency in government procurement are modest and will not encroach on national policy autonomy
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Woolcock argues furthermore that the commitments involved in greater transparency in government procurement are modest and will not encroach on national policy autonomy.
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The Singapore issues in Cancún: A failed negotiation ploy or a litmus test for global governance?'
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See
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See Stephen Woolcock, 'The Singapore issues in Cancún: a failed negotiation ploy or a litmus test for global governance?', Review of European Economic Policy / Intereconomics 38 (5) (2003), 249-55.
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(2003)
Review of European Economic Policy / Intereconomics
, vol.38
, Issue.5
, pp. 249-255
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Woolcock, S.1
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The digital provide: Information (technology), market performance and welfare in the South Indian fisheries sector
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Robert Jensen, 'The digital provide: information (technology), market performance and welfare in the South Indian fisheries sector', Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122 (3) (2007), 879-24.
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(2007)
Quarterly Journal of Economics
, vol.122
, Issue.3
, pp. 879-924
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Jensen, R.1
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Note
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In similar fashion, Simon Evenett states bluntly that 'when one considers how rarely, if ever, one hears of development success stories based on degrading a nation's trade facilitation infrastructure, on greater delays and costs at ports and airports, and on non-transparent public-procurement policies, one wonders just how ridiculous is the claim that the need to preserve the policy space of developing countries provides compelling grounds to reject the Singapore issues'.
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Five hypotheses concerning the fate of the Singapore issues in the Doha Round
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Simon J. Evenett, 'Five hypotheses concerning the fate of the Singapore issues in the Doha Round', Oxford Review of Economic Policy 23 (3) (2007), 392-414.
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(2007)
Oxford Review of Economic Policy
, vol.23
, Issue.3
, pp. 392-414
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Evenett, S.J.1
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Note
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Opponents argue that the benefits of debt relief are subject to elite capture, an argument that provides a rationale for conditional debt relief.
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For example, the Norwegian government's Soria Moria Declaration in February 2007 asserted that no requirements must be made for privatisation as a condition for the cancellation of debt.
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Economies are divided according to 2007 GNI per capita, calculated using the World Bank Atlas method. The groups are: low per-capita income, $935 or less; lower middle income, $936-$3,705; upper middle income, $3,706-$11,455; and high income, $11,456 or more.
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Given the often sizeable and rapidly-growing middle class as well as often extreme inequality in income and wealth distributions in many emerging economies, it can be argued that the responsibility to tackle domestic poverty is as much a domestic policy issue as it is the responsibility of developed country aid donors.
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Note
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An alternative set of PCD building blocks is presented by the OECD. These include political commitment and policy statements, policy coordination mechanisms and monitoring, analysis and reporting systems. See OECD, 'Building blocks' for further details.
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An example of a standard process for the evaluation of the policy impacts is the European system of Regulatory Impact Assessments (RIAs).
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