Risk Governance for Mobile Phones, Power Lines, and Other EMF Technologies

Risk Analysis

Volumn 30, Issue 10, 2010, Pages 1481-1494

  Kheifets, Leeka ^a   Swanson, John ^b   Kandel, Shaiela ^c   Malloy, Timothy F ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b NATIONAL GRID   (United Kingdom)

^c HEBREW UNIVERSITY OF JERUSALEM   (Israel)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Mobile phones; Policy; Power lines; Risk analysis; Risk governance

Indexed keywords

19TH CENTURY; CELLULAR COMMUNICATION; EARLY WARNING; ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS; EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES; EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT; IDENTIFICATION AND EVALUATION; INDUSTRIALIZED COUNTRIES; MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES; POLICY; POTENTIAL HEALTH; POWER FREQUENCY; POWER LINES; PROTECTIVE MEASURES; PUBLIC CONCERN; PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT; RADIO FREQUENCIES; RADIO FREQUENCY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; RADIOFREQUENCY TECHNOLOGY; RISK GOVERNANCE; SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE;

ELECTRIC LINES; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD EFFECTS; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; HEALTH; HEALTH RISKS; MAGNETIC FIELDS; MOBILE DEVICES; MOBILE PHONES; MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS; RADIO COMMUNICATION; RISK ANALYSIS; RISK MANAGEMENT; TECHNOLOGY; TELEPHONE; TELEPHONE SETS;

RISK ASSESSMENT;

ELECTRIC FIELD; ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD; HEALTH POLICY; MAGNETIC FIELD; MANAGEMENT PRACTICE; NINETEENTH CENTURY; POWER LINE; PUBLIC HEALTH; RISK ASSESSMENT;

ARTICLE; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD; HUMAN; INDUSTRY; MOBILE PHONE; POWER SUPPLY; RADIOFREQUENCY RADIATION; RISK ASSESSMENT; SCIENCE; STANDARD;

CELLULAR PHONE; ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLIES; ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS; HUMANS; INDUSTRY; RADIO WAVES; RISK ASSESSMENT; SCIENCE;

EID: 78650466673     PISSN: 02724332     EISSN: 15396924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1539-6924.2010.01467.x     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. World Health Organization Environmental Health Criteria (WHO EHC): Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, No. 238, 2007.
2. Geekzone News. Number of mobile phone users worldwide to increase to 2 billion by 2007. August 8, 2003. Available at:, Accessed on November 5, 2006.
3. Wertheimer N, Leeper E. Electrical wiring configurations and childhood cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1979; 109:273-84.
4. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Non-ionizing radiation. Part 1: Static and extremely low-frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields. Monographs of the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans, 2002; 80:338.
5. Kheifets L, Afifi AA, Shimkhada R. Public health impact of extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields. Environ Health Perspectives, 1999; 114(10):1532-1537.
6. Clarke R. Control of low-level radiation exposure: Time for a change Journal of Radiological Protection, 1999; 19(2):107-115.
7. Calman KC. Cancer: Science and society. British Medical Journal, 1996; 313:799-802.
8. Travis CC, Richter SA, Crouch EAC, Wilson R. Cancer risk management: A review of 137 federal regulatory decisions. Journal of Environmental Sciences and Technology, 1987; 21(5):415-420.
9. Travis CC, Hattemer-Frey HA. Determining an acceptable level of risk. Environmental Science and Technology, 1988; 22(8):873-876.
10. Feychting M, Ahlbom A, Kheifets L. EMF and health. Annual Review of Public Health, 2005; 26:165-189.
11. ICNIRP. ICNIRP statement on EMF-emitting new technologies. Health Physics, 2008; 94(4):376-392.
12. EC. European Commission Eurobarometer 272a: Electromagnetic fields, 2007.
13. Slovic P. Perception of risk. Science, 1987; 236(4799):280-285.
14. Asanova TP, Rakov AN. Health conditions of workers exposed to electric fields of open switchboard installations of 400-500 kV (preliminary report). Gig Tr Prof Zabol, 1966; 10(5):50-52.
15. Milham S Jr. Mortality from leukemia in workers exposed to electrical and magnetic fields. New England Journal of Medicine, 1982; 307(4):249.
16. Ahlbom A, Albert EN, Fraser-Smith AC, Grodzinsky AJ, Marron MT, Martin AO, et al. Biological Effects of Power Line Fields, NYSPLP Report, Editor. Albany, NY New York State Department of Health, 1987.
17. U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. Biological Effects of Power Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields-Background Paper. Washington, DC U.S. GPO, 1989.
18. Feychting M, Ahlbom A. Magnetic fields and cancer in children residing near Swedish high-voltage power lines. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1993; 138(7):467-481.
19. NIEHS Report to Congress. Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination Program (EMF -RAPID). NIEHS Report on health effects from exposure to power line frequency electric and magnetic fields. Research Triangle Park, NC National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health Publication, No. 99-4493, 1999.
20. Linet MS, Hatch EE, Kleinerman RA, Robinson LL, Kaune WT, Friedman DR, et al. Residential exposure to magnetic fields and acute lymphoblastic leukemia in children. New England Journal of Medicine, 1997; 337(1):1-7.
21. NTP (ed). Studies of Magnetic Field Promotion in Sprague-Dawley Rats. Research Triangle Park, NC National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Editor. 1998.
22. NRC (ed). Possible Health Effects from Exposure to Residential Electric and Magnetic Fields. Washington, DC National Academy Press, 1997.
23. NRPB (ed). Electromagnetic Fields and the Risk of Cancer. Report of an Advisory Group on Non-Ionizing Radiation. Oxon, UK Chilton, Didcot, 1992.
24. Portier CJ, Wolfe MS (eds). Assessment of Health Effects from Exposure to Power-Line Frequency Electric and Magnetic Fields: Working Group Report. Research Triangle Park, NC National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Toxicology Program, 1998.
25. NRPB. Restrictions on Human Exposure to Static and Time Varying Electromagnetic Fields and Radiation: Scientific Basis and Recommendations for the Implementation of the Board's Statement, 1993.
26. National Board of Occupational Safety and Health, Building, and Planning, National Electrical Safety Board, National Board of Health and Welfare. Radiation Protection Institute Low-Frequency Electrical and Magnetic Fields: The Precautionary Principle for National Authorities: Guidance for Decision-Makers. Stockholm, 1996.
27. Gibbs H. Inquiry into Community Needs and High Voltage Transmission Line Development. Sydney, Australia N.S.W. Government, 1991.
28. Kheifets L, Sahl J, Shimkhada R, Repacholi M. Developing policy in the face of scientific uncertainty: Interpreting 0.3 microT or 0.4 microT cut points from EMF epidemiologic studies. Risk Analysis, 2005; 25(4):927-935.
29. Energy Policy Act of 1992, Pub L No 102-486, 106 Stat 2776 (Sec. 2118) 1992.
30. ICNIRP. Guidelines for limiting exposure to time-varying electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic fields (up to 300 GHz). Health Physics, 1998; 74(4):494-522.
31. Ahlbom A, Day N, Feychting M, Roman E, Skinner J, Dockerty J, et al. A pooled analysis of magnetic fields and childhood leukemia. British Journal of Cancer, 2000; 83:692-698.
32. Greenland S, Sheppard AR, Kaune WT, Poole C, Kelsh MA. A pooled analysis of magnetic fields, wire codes, and childhood leukemia. Childhood Leukemia-EMF Study Group. Epidemiology, 2000; 11(6):624-634.
33. Sandmann P. Hazard versus outrage in public perception of risk. Pp 44-49 in Covello VT, McCallum DB, Pavlova MT (eds). Effective Risk Communication: The Role and Responsibility of Government and Non Government Organizations. New York Plenum Press, 1989.
34. Fischhoff B, Slovic P, Lichtenstein S, Read S, Combs B. How safe is safe enough? A psychometric study of attitudes towards technological risks and benefits. Policy Sciences, 1978; 9:127-52.
35. CADHS. Policy document. 2002; California EMF Program Policy document. Available at: <>, Accessed in 2002.
36. WHO, World Health Organization. International Standards Database. Available at:, Accessed in 2005.
37. Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR). Possible Effects of Electromagnetic Fields on Human Health. Brussels European Commission DG Health and Consumer Protection, 2007.
38. Carpenter DO, Sage C. Setting prudent public health policy for electromagnetic field exposures. Review of Environmental Health, 2008; 23(2):91-117.
39. World Health Organization. Precautionary Principle Workshop. Luxembourg, 2002.
40. NRPB. Review of scientific evidence for limiting exposure to EMFs. 2004.
41. Obrosov AN, Krylov OA. Biological and therapeutic action of microwaves. Vopr Kurortol Fizioter Lech Fiz Kult, 1982; (2):1-8.
42. Frey AH, Messenger R Jr. Human perception of illumination with pulsed ultrahigh-frequency electromagnetic energy. Science, 1973; 181(97):356-358.
43. Bise W. Low power radio-frequency and microwave effects on human electroencephalogram and behavior. Physiology and Chemical Psychology, 1978; 10(5):387-398.
44. O'Connor M. Mammalian teratogenesis and radio-frequency fields. Proceedings of IEEE, 1980; 68:56-60.
45. American National Standard Institute. American National Standard Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: 300 kHz to 100 GHz (ANSI C95.1-1982), 1982.
46. Repacholi MH, Basten A, Gebski V, Noonan D, Finnie J, Harris AW. Lymphomas in E mu-Pim1 transgenic mice exposed to pulsed 900 MHZ electromagnetic fields. Radiation Research, 1997; 147(5):631-640.
47. Burgess A. Cellular Phones, Public Fears and a Culture of Precaution. New York Cambridge University, 2004.
48. IEEE. IEEE Standard for Safety Levels with Respect to Human Exposure to Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields 3KHz. New York, 1982.
49. Australian Standards. Radiofrequency Fields Part 1: Maximum Exposure Levels 3 kHz-300GHz. Standards Australia Homebush, 1998.
50. EC. Recommendation directive 1999/519/EC on the limitation of exposure of the general public to electromagnetic fields (0 Hz to 300 GHz). Official Journal of the EC L199, 1999; 59-70.
51. Carlo GSM. Cell Phones: Invisible Hazards in a Wireless Age. New York Carroll and Graf, 2001.
52. Cardis E, Richardson L, Deltour I, Armstrong B, Feychting M, Johnson C, et al. The INTERPHONE study: Design, epidemiological methods, and description of the study population. European Journal of Epidemiology, 2007; 22(9):647-664.
53. Commission of the European Communities. Communication on the Precautionary Principle, Brussels 02 February 2000. Available at:, Accessed in 2001.
54. Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones. Mobile Phones and Health. N.R.P.B.S. Committee (ed), Didcot, UK, 2000.
55. Sahl J, Dolan M. An evaluation of precaution-based approaches as EMF policy tools in community environments. Environment and Health Perspectives, 1996; 104(9):908-911.
56. Hyland GJ. Memorandum-Potential Adverse Health Impacts of Mobile Telephony. 2000.
57. Health Council of Netherlands, Electromagnetic Fields Committee. Mobile Phones. A Health Based Analysis. The Hague Publication, 2002.
58. Kolata G. A conversation with: Eleanor R. Adair: Tuning into the microwave frequency. New York Times, January 16, 2001.
59. Zmirou D. Mobile Telephones, Base Stations and Health: Current State-of-Art Knowledge and Recommendations. A Report to the Director General of Health of France, 2003.
60. Goldstein L, Kheifets, L, Van Deventer E, Repacholi M. Comments on the paper "Long term exposure of Eμ-Pim 1transgenic mice to 898.4MHz microwaves does not increase lymphoma incidence. Radiation Research, 2002; 158:375-364.
61. Advisory Group on Non-ionizing Radiation (AGNIR). Health Effects from Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields. NRPB, 2003; 14(2).
62. Independent Expert Group on Electromagnetic Fields (IEGEMF). SSI Report of the Swedish Radiation Protection Authority: Recent Research on EMF and Health Risks. Fourth Annual Report, 2007.
63. Presidential/Congressional Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management (PCCRARM). Framework for Environmental Health Risk Management. 1997. Available at:, Accessed in 1998.
64. Kheifets L, Van Deverter E, Lundell G, Swanson J. Le principe de précaution et les champs électriques et magnétiques: mise en oeuvre et évaluation. Environnement, risques et santé, 2006.
65. Florig HK. Containing the costs of the EMF problem. Science, 1992; 257(5069):468-469, 488, and 490-492.
66. Gee D. Late lessons from early warnings: Toward realism and precaution with endocrine-disrupting substances. Environmental Health Perspectives, 2006; 114(Suppl 1):152-160.
67. BSE. The BSE Inquiry Report. Available at: Link to the BSE Inquiry Archive site () *MAFF* Department of Health*Food Standards Agency, Accessed September 2002.
68. Cvetkovich G (ed). Social Trust and the Management of Risk. London Earthscan Publications Ltd., 1999.
69. International Risk Governance Council (IRGC). White Paper on Risk Governance, 2007.
70. National Research Council. Public Participationin Environmental Assessment and Decision Making. Washington, DC National Academy Press, 2008.
71. UK Treasury Department. Managing Risks to the Public: Appraisal Guidance. 2005.
72. International Risk Governance Council (IRGC). Risk Governance Deficits: An Analysis and Illustration of the Most Common Deficits in Risk Governance, 2009.
73. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Office of Engineering and Technology (OET). Bulletin 65, Version 97-01, 1997.
74. Fiorini DJ. Citizen participation and environmental risk: A survey of institutional mechanisms. Science Technology Human Values, 1990; 15:226-243.
75. Rowe G, Frewer, LJ. A typology of public engagement mechanisms. Science Technology & Human Values, 2005; 30:251-290.
76. Arnstein SR. A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of American Institute of Planners, 1969; 35:215-224.
77. Walls J, O'Riordan T, Horlick-Jones T, Niewöhner J. The meta governance of risk and new technologies: GM crops and mobile telephones. Journal of Risk Research, 2005; 8(7/8):635-661.
78. Eagle SJ. Securing a reliable electricity grid: A new era in transmission siting regulation Tennessee Law Review, 2005; 73:1-46.
79. Energy Policy Act of 2005, 119 Stat. 948, Section 216(d), 2005.
80. FERC. Order 689, 71 Fed. Reg. 69440, December 1, 2006.
81. Raab J, Susskind L. New Approaches to Consensus Building and Speeding Up Large-Scale Energy Infrastructure Projects. June 23, 2009. Available at:, Accessed September 2009.
82. Stakeholder Advisory Group on ELF EMFs (SAGE). Precautionary approaches to ELF EMFs: First Interim Assessment: Power Lines and Property: Wiring in Homes, and Electrical Equipment in Homes. UK R K Partnership Ltd., 2007.
83. California Public Utilities Commission. Decision 06-01-042. January 26, 2006.