Childhood traumata, Dexamethasone Suppression Test and psychiatric symptoms: A trans-diagnostic approach

Psychological Medicine

Volumn 40, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 2037-2048

  Faravelli, C ^a   Amedei, S Gorini ^a   Rotella, F ^a   Faravelli, L ^a   Palla, A ^a   Consoli, G ^a   Ricca, V ^a   Batini, S ^a   Sauro, C Lo ^a   Spiti, A ^a   Dell'Osso, M Catena ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE   (Italy)

Author keywords

HPA axis; life event; psychopathology; transdiagnostic; vulnerability

Indexed keywords

DEXAMETHASONE; DIAGNOSTIC AGENT; GLUCOCORTICOID; HYDROCORTISONE;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; ARTICLE; CASE CONTROL STUDY; CHEMISTRY; CHILD ABUSE; CLINICAL TRIAL; FEMALE; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; MALE; MENTAL DISEASE; MENTAL STRESS; MIDDLE AGED; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; SALIVA;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; CASE-CONTROL STUDIES; CHILD ABUSE; DEXAMETHASONE; FEMALE; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; MALE; MENTAL DISORDERS; MIDDLE AGED; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; SALIVA; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 78650308694     PISSN: 00332917     EISSN: 14698978     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0033291710000115     Document Type: Article

References (103)

1. Arana GW, Wilens TE, Baldessarini RJ (1985). Plasma corticosterone and cortisol following Dexamethasone in psychiatric patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology 10, 49-60.
2. Atmaca M, Kuloglu M, Tezcan E, Onal S, Ustundag B (2002). Neopterin levels and dexamethasone suppression test in posttraumatic stress disorder. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience 252, 161-165.
3. Back SE, Brady KT, Waldrop AE, Yeatts SD, McRae AL, Spratt E (2008). Early life trauma and sensitivity to current life stressors in individuals with and without cocaine dependence. The American journal of drug and alcohol abuse 34, 389-396.
4. Bandelow B, Späth C, Tichauer GA, Broocks A, Hajak G, Rü ther E (2002). Early traumatic life events, parental attitudes, family history, and birth risk factors in patients with panic disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry 43, 269-278.
5. Bierer LM, Yehuda R, Schmeidler J, Mitropoulou V, New AS, Silverman JM, Siever LJ (2003). Abuse and neglect in childhood: relationship to personality disorder diagnoses. CNS Spectrums 8, 737-754.
6. Bifulco A, Brown GW, Harris TO (1994). Childhood experience of care and abuse (CECA). A retrospective interview measure. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines 35, 1419-1435.
7. Bob P, Fedor-Freybergh P, Jasova D, Bizik G, Susta M, Pavlat J, Zima T, Benakova H, Raboch J (2008). Dissociative symptoms and neuroendocrine dysregulation in depression. Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research 14, CR499-CR504.
8. Bradley RG, Binder EB, Epstein MP, Tang Y, Nair HP, Liu W, Gillespie CF, Berg T, Evces M, Newport DJ, Stowe ZN, Heim CM, Nemeroff CB, Schwartz A, Cubells JF, Ressler KJ (2008). Influence of child abuse on adult depression: moderation by the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor gene. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 190-200.
9. Bremner D, Vermetten E, Kelley ME (2007). Cortisol, dehydroepiandrosterone, and estradiol measured over 24 hours in women with childhood sexual abuse-related posttraumatic stress disorder. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 195, 919-927.
10. Bremner JD, Vythilingam M, Vermetten E, Adil J, Khan S, Nazeer A, Afzal N, McGlashan T, Elzinga B, Anderson GM, Heninger G, Southwick SM, Charney DS (2003). Cortisol response to a cognitive stress challenge in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to childhood abuse. Psychoneuroendocrinology 28, 733-750.
11. Carroll BJ (1977). The hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis in depression. In Handbook of Studies on Depression (ed. G. D. Burrows), pp. 325-342. Excerpta Med: Amsterdam.
12. Castro M, Elias LLK, Elias PCL, Moreira AC (2003). A dose-response study of salivary cortisol after dexamethasone suppression test in Cushing's disease and its potential use in the differential diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. Clinical Endocrinology 59, 800-805.
13. Castro M, Elias PC, Quidute AR, Halah FP, Moreira AC (1999). Out-patient screening for Cushing's syndrome: the sensitivity of the combination of circadian rhythm and overnight dexamethasone suppression salivary cortisol tests. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 84, 878-882.
14. Cesková E, Kaspárek T, Zourková A, Prikryl R (2006). Dexamethasone suppression test in first-episode schizophrenia. Neuro Endocrinology Letters 27, 433-437.
15. Chard KM (2003). Personality disorders, coping strategies, and posttraumatic stress disorder in women with histories of childhood sexual abuse. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse 12, 19-39.
16. Chiu SK, Collier CP, Clark AF, Wynn-Edwards KE (2003). Salivary cortisol on ROCHE Elecsys immunoassay system: pilot biological variation studies. Clinical Biochemistry 36, 211-214.
17. Cohen J, Venkatesh B, Galligan J, Thomas P (2004). Salivary cortisol concentration in the intensive care population: correlation with plasma cortisol values. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care 32, 843-884.
18. Copeland WE, Keeler G, Angold A, Costello EJ (2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 577-584.
19. Copolov DL, Rubin RT, Stuart GW, Poland RE, Mander AJ, Sashidharan SP, Whitehouse AM, Blackburn IM, Freeman CP, Blackwood DH (1989). Specificity of the salivary cortisol dexamethasone suppression test across psychiatric diagnoses. Biological Psychiatry 25, 879-893.
20. Costantin Faria CD, Cobra JF, Sousa e Silva T, Rezende Melo M, Neves Rocha M, Sukusima Hayashi L, Faria TG, de Souza e Almeida JA, Kater CE, Langui CA (2008). A very low dose intravenous dexamethasone suppression test as an index of glucocorticoid sensitivity. Hormone Research 69, 357-362.
21. Daban C, Vieta E, Mackin P, Young AH (2005). Hypothalamic-pituitary- adrenal axis and bipolar disorder. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America 28, 469-480.
22. De Groot J, Rodin GM (1999). The relationship between eating disorders and childhood trauma. Psychiatric Annals 29, 225-229.
23. De Kloet C, Vermetten E, Lentjes E, Geuze E, van Pelt J, Manuel R, Heijnen C, Westenberg H (2008). Differences in the response to the combined DEX-CRH test between PTSD patients with and without co-morbid depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33, 313-320.
24. Delahanty DL, Nugent NR (2006). Predicting PTSD prospectively based on prior trauma history and immediate biological responses. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1071, 27-40.
25. Díaz-Marsá M, Carrasco JL, Basurte E, Sáiz J, López-Ibor JJ, Hollander E. (2008). Enhanced cortisol suppression in eating disorders with impulsive personality features. Psychiatry Research 158, 93-97.
26. Dube SR, Felitti VJ, Dong M, Chapman DP, Giles WH, Anda RF (2003). Childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction and the risk of illicit drug use: the adverse childhood experiences study. Pediatrics 111, 564-572.
27. Faravelli C, Ambonetti A, Pallanti S, Sacchetti E, Conte G, Vita A (1986). Early life events and affective disorders revisited. British Journal of Psychiatry 148, 288-295.
28. Faravelli C, Bartolozzi D, Cimminiello L, Cecchi C, Cosci F, D'Adamo D, Di Mattro MC, Di Primio C, Fabbri C, Lo Iacono B, Paionni A (2001). The Florence Psychiatric Interview. International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research 10, 157-171.
29. Faravelli C, Catena M, Scarpato A, Ricca V (2007). Epidemiology of life events: life events and psychiatric disorders in the Sesto Fiorentino study. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics 76, 361-368.
30. Faravelli C, Servi P, Arends JA, Strik WK (1996). Number of symptoms, quantification, and qualification of depression. Comprehensive Psychiatry 37, 307-315.
31. Faravelli C, Webb T, Ambonetti A, Fonnesu F, Sessarego A (1985). Prevalence of traumatic early life events in 31 agoraphobic patients with panic attacks. American Journal of Psychiatry 142, 1493-1494.
32. First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Williams JBW (1995). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders-Patient Edition (SCID-I/P version 2.0). Biometrics Research Department, New York State Psychiatric Institute: New York.
33. Gerra G, Leonardi C, Cortese E, Zaimovic A, Dell'Agnello G, Manfredini M, Somaini L, Petracca F, Caretti V, Baroni C, Donnini C (2008). Adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol plasma levels directly correlate with childhood neglect and depression measures in addicted patients. Addiction Biology 13, 95-104.
34. Goenjian AK, Yehuda R, Pynoos RS, Steinberg AM, Tashjian M, Yang RK, Najarian LM, Fairbanks LA (1996). Basal cortisol, dexamethasone suppression of cortisol, and MHPG in adolescents after the 1988 earthquake in Armenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 153, 929-934.
35. Goodman M, New A, Siever L (2004). Trauma, genes, and the neurobiology of personality disorders. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1032, 104-116.
36. Gottesman II, Gould TD (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: etymology and strategic intentions. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 636-645.
37. Gozansky WS, Lynn JS, Laudenslager ML, Kohrt WM (2005). Salivary cortisol determined by enzyme immunoassay is preferable to serum total cortisol for assessment of dynamic hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity. Clinical Endocrinology 63, 336-341.
38. Griffin MG, Resick PA, Yehuda R (2005). Enhanced cortisol suppression following dexamethasone administration in domestic violence survivors. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 1192-1199.
39. Hanada K, Yamada N, Shimoda K, Takahashi K, Takahashi S (1985). Direct radioimmunoassay of cortisol in saliva and its application to the dexamethasone suppression test in affective disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology 10, 193-201.
40. Heim C, Mletzko T, Purselle D, Musselman DL, Nemeroff CB (2008a). The dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing factor test in men with major depression: role of childhood trauma. Biological Psychiatry 63, 398-405.
41. Heim C, Nemeroff CB (2001). The role of childhood trauma in the neurobiology of mood and anxiety disorders: preclinical and clinical studies. Biological Psychiatry 49, 1023-1039.
42. Heim C, Newport DJ, Mletzko T, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB (2008b). The link between childhood trauma and depression: insights from HPA axis studies in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology 33, 693-710.
43. Huizenga NA, Koper JW, de Lange P, Pols HA, Stolk RP, Grobbee DE, de Jong FH, Lamberts SW (1998). Interperson variability but intraperson stability of baseline plasma cortisol concentrations, and its relation to feedback sensitivity of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis to a low dose of dexamethasone in elderly individuals. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 83, 47-54.
44. Janssen I, Krabbendam L, Bak M, Hanssen M, Vollebergh W, de Graaf R, van Os J (2004). Childhood abuse as a risk factor for psychotic experiences. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 109, 38-45.
45. Joëls M, Krugers H, Karst H (2008). Stress-induced changes in hippocampal function. Progress in Brain Research 167, 3-15.
46. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Chen H, Kasen S, Brook JS (2006). Parenting behaviors associated with risk for offspring personality disorder during adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 579-587.
47. Juruena MF, Cleare AJ, Papadopoulos AS, Poon L, Lightman S, Pariante CM (2006). Different responses to dexamethasone and prednisolone in the same depressed patients. Psychopharmacology 189, 225-235.
48. Kahn JP, Rubinow DR, Davis CL, Kling M, Post RM (1988). Salivary cortisol: a practical method for evaluation of adrenal function. Biological Psychiatry 23, 335-349.
49. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Merikangas KR, Walters EE (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry 62, 617-627.
50. Kudielka BM, Bellingrath S, Hellhammer DH (2006). Cortisol in burnout and vital exhaustion: an overview. Giornale Italiano di Medicina del Lavoro ed Ergonomia 28, 34-42.
51. Laudat MH, Cerdas S, Fournier C, Guiban D, Guilhaume B, Luton JP (1988). Salivary cortisol measurement: a practical approach to assess pituitary-adrenal function. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 66, 343-348.
52. Lloyd C (1980). Life events and depressive disorder reviewed. Archives of General Psychiatry 37, 529-535.
53. Lo Sauro C, Ravaldi C, Cabras PL, Faravelli C, Ricca V (2008). Stress, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and eating disorders. Neuropsychobiology 57, 95-115.
54. McCracken JT, Poland RE (1989). Saliva and serum cortisol dynamics following intravenous dexamethasone in normal volunteers. Life Sciences 45, 1781-1785.
55. MacKenzie EM, Odontiadis J, Le Mellédo JM, Prior TI, Baker GB (2007). The relevance of neuroactive steroids in schizophrenia, depression, and anxiety disorders. Cellular and molecular neurobiology 27, 541-574.
56. Magri F, Crivello L, Barili L, Sarra S, Cinchetti W, Salmoiraghi F, Micale G, Ferrari E (2006). Stress and dementia: the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research 18, 167-170.
57. Matsunaga H, Sarai M (2000). Low-dose (0.5 mg) DST in manic and major depressive episodes: in relation to the severity of symptoms. Seishin Shinkeigaku Zasshi 102, 367-398.
58. Meaney MJ, Szyf M (2005). Environmental programming of stress responses through DNA methylation: life at the interface between a dynamic environment and a fixed genome. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience 7, 103-123.
59. Molnar BE, Buka SL, Kessler RC (2001). Child sexual abuse and subsequent psychopathology: results from the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health 91, 753-60.
60. Nemeroff CB (2004). Neurobiological consequences of childhood trauma. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65, 18-28.
61. Nestler EJ, Barrot M, DiLeone RJ, Eisch AJ, Gold SJ, Monteggia LM (2002). Neurobiology of depression. Neuron 34, 13-25.
62. Newport DJ, Heim C, Bonsall R, Miller AH, Nemeroff CB (2004). Pituitary-adrenal responses to standard and low-dose dexamethasone suppression tests in adult survivors of child abuse. Biological Psychiatry 55, 10-20.
63. Nishiyama FJ, Thlaygi H, Zayour DH, Hejal R, Arafah BM (2005). Increased salivary cortisol concentrations in critically ill patients: a practical approach in determining free cortisol in the circulation. Program of the 87th Annual Meeting of The Endocrine Society, Abstract P3-P440. San Diego, CA.
64. Oquendo MA, Echavarria G, Galfalvy HC, Grunebaum MF, Burke A, Barrera A, Cooper TB, Malone KM, John Mann J (2003). Lower cortisol levels in depressed patients with comorbid post-traumatic stress disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 28, 591-598.
65. Overall JE, Gorham DR (1962). The Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale. Psychological Reports 10, 790-812.
66. Pariante CM, Lightman SL (2008). The HPA axis in major depression: classical theories and new developments. Trends in Neurosciences 31, 464-468.
67. Paykel ES (1982). Life events and early environment. In Handbook of Affective Disorders. Churchill Livingstone: London.
68. Pecori Giraldi F (2009). Recent challenges in the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome. Hormone Research 71, 123-127.
69. Putignano P, Kaltsas GA, Satta MA, Grossman AB (1998). The effects of anti-convulsant drugs on adrenal function. Hormone and Metabolic Research 30, 389-397.
70. Raff H (2000). Salivary cortisol: a useful measurement in the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome and the evaluation of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis. Endocrinologist 10, 9-17.
71. Read J, van Os J, Morrison AP, Ross CA (2005). Childhood trauma, psychosis and schizophrenia: a literature review with theoretical and clinical implications. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 112, 330-350.
72. Reed PL, Anthony JC, Breslau N (2007). Incidence of drug problems in young adults exposed to trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder: do early life experiences and predispositions matter? Archives of General Psychiatry 64, 1435-1442.
73. Reid JD, Intrieri RC, Susman EJ, Beard JL (1992). The relationship of serum and salivary cortisol in a sample of healthy elderly. Journal of Gerontology 47, 176-179.
74. Rinne T, de Kloet ER, Wouters L, Goekoop JG, DeRijk RH, van den Brink W (2008). Hyperresponsiveness of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to combined mexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone challenge in female borderline personality disorder subjects with a history of sustained childhood abuse. Biological Psychiatry 52, 1102-1112.
75. Risbrough VB, Stein MB (2006). Role of corticotropin releasing factor in anxiety disorders: a translational research perspective. Hormones and Behavior 50, 550-561.
76. Rohleder N, Joksimovic L, Wolf JM, Kirschbaum C (2004). Hypocortisolism and increased glucocorticoid sensitivity of pro-inflammatory cytokine production in Bosnian war refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 55, 745-751.
77. Sarai M, Matsunaga H (1986). Low-dose (0.5-mg) dexamethasone suppression test in depressive patients. Biological Psychiatry 21, 744-750.
78. Schreiber W, Lauer CJ, Krumrey K, Holsboer F, Krieg JC (1996). Dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system in panic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 15, 7-15.
79. Shinkai S, Watanabe S, Kurokawa Y, Torii J (1993). Salivary cortisol for monitoring circadian rhythm variation in adrenal activity during shift work. International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 64, 499-502.
80. Simpson TL, Miller WR (2002). Concomitance between childhood sexual and physical abuse and substance use problems: A review. Clinical Psychology Review 22, 27-77.
81. Thompson KM, Wonderlich SA (2004). Child sexual abuse and eating disorders. In Handbook of Eating Disorders and Obesity (ed. J. K. Thompson). John Wiley: Hoboken NJ.
82. Tiefenbacher S, Lee B, Meyer JS, Spealman RD (2003). Noninvasive technique for the repeated sampling of salivary free cortisol in awake, unrestrained squirrel monkeys. American Journal of Primatology 60, 69-75.
83. Tweed JL, Schoenbach VJ, George LK, Blazer DG (1989). The effects of childhood parental death and divorce on six-month history of anxiety disorders. British Journal of Psychiatry 154, 823-828.
84. Tyrka AR, Wier L, Price LH, Ross N, Anderson GM, Wilkinson CW, Carpenter LL (2008). Childhood parental loss and adult hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function. Biological Psychiatry 63, 1147-1154.
85. Ucok A, Bikmaz S (2007). The effects of childhood trauma in patients with first-episode schizophrenia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 116, 371-377.
86. Umeda T, Hiramatsu R, Iwaoka T, Shimada T, Miura F, Sato T (1981). Use of saliva for monitoring unbound free cortisol levels in serum. Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry 110, 245-253.
87. van Praag HM (1997). Over the mainstream: diagnostic requirements for biological psychiatric research. Psychiatry Research 72, 201-212.
88. van Praag HM (2001a). Anxiety/aggression-driven depression. A paradigm of functionalization and verticalization of psychiatric diagnosis. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry 25, 893-924.
89. van Praag HM (2001b). Past expectations, present disappointments, future hopes or psychopathology as the rate-limiting step of progress in psychopharmacology. Human Psychopharmacology 16(1), 3-7.
90. van Praag HM (2004). Functionalizing diagnostics. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 2138.
91. Viardot A, Huber P, Puder JJ, Zulewski H, Keller U, Muller B (2005). Reproducibility of night time salivary cortisol and its use in the diagnosis of hypercortisolism compared with urinary free cortisol and overnight dexamethasone suppression test. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 90, 5730-5736.
92. Walker E, Mittal V, Tessner K (2008). Stress and the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis in the developmental course of schizophrenia. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 4, 189-216.
93. Weaver IC, Meaney MJ, Szyf M (2006). Maternal care effects on the hippocampal transcriptome and anxiety-mediated behaviors in the offspring that are reversible in adulthood. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 103, 3480-3485.
94. Widom CS, Morris S (1997). Accuracy of adult recollections of childhood victimization: Part 2. Childhood sexual abuse. Psychological Assessment 9, 34-46.
95. Wonderlich SA, Crosby RD, Mitchell JE, Thompson KM, Redlin J, Demuth G, Smyth J, Haseltine B (2001). Eating disturbance and sexual trauma in childhood and adulthood. International Journal of Eating Disorder 30, 401-412.
96. Yehuda R, Boisoneau D, Lowy MT, Giller Jr. EL (1995a). Dose-response changes in plasma cortisol and lymphocyte glucocorticoid receptors following dexamethasone administration in combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 52, 583-593.
97. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Halligan SL, Meaney M, Bierer LM (2004a). The ACTH response to dexamethasone in PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 1397-1403.
98. Yehuda R, Golier JA, Yang RK, Tischler L (2004b). Enhanced sensitivity to glucocorticoids in peripheral mononuclear leukocytes in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 55, 1110-1116.
99. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Golier JA, Grossman R, Bierer LM (2004c). Effects of trauma exposure on the cortisol response to dexamethasone administration in PTSD and major depressive disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology 29, 389-404.
100. Yehuda R, Halligan SL, Grossman R, Golier JA, Wong C (2002). The cortisol and glucocorticoid receptor response to low dose dexamethasone administration in aging combat veterans and holocaust survivors with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 52, 393-403.
101. Yehuda R, Kahana B, Binder-Brynes K, Southwick SM, Mason JW, Giller EL (1995b). Low urinary cortisol excretion in Holocaust survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 152, 982-986.
102. Yehuda R, Southwick SM, Krystal JH, Bremner D, Charney DS, Mason JW (1993). Enhanced suppression of cortisol following dexamethasone administration in posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 150, 83-86.
103. Zlotnick C, Johnson J, Kohn R, Vincente B, Rioseco P, Saldivia S (2008). Childhood trauma, trauma in adulthood, and psychiatric diagnoses: results from a community sample. Comprehensive Psychiatry 49, 163-169.