Assessment scales for disorders of consciousness: Evidence-based recommendations for clinical practice and research

Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

Volumn 91, Issue 12, 2010, Pages 1795-1813

  Seel, Ronald T ^a   Sherer, Mark ^b   Whyte, John ^c   Katz, Douglas I ^d,e   Giacino, Joseph T ^g,i   Rosenbaum, Amy M ^f   Hammond, Flora M ^h   Kalmar, Kathleen ⁱ   Pape, Theresa Louise Bender ^j   Zafonte, Ross ^g   Biester, Rosette C ^k   Kaelin, Darryl ^a   Kean, Jacob ^h   Zasler, Nathan ^l  

^a SHEPHERD CENTER   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^c MOSS REHABILITATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^d BOSTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e Braintree Rehabilitation Hospital   (United States)

^f Park Terrace Care Center ^*  (United States)

^g HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^h INDIANA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

ⁱ JFK JOHNSON REHABILITATION INSTITUTE   (United States)

^j NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^k VETERANS AFFAIRS MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

^l Tree of Life LLC   (United States)

more..

Author keywords

Brain injuries; Coma; Consciousness Disorders; Diagnosis; Outcome assessment; Persistent vegetative State; Practice guidelines as topic; Prognosis; Rehabilitation; Review

Indexed keywords

BEHAVIORAL SCIENCE; BRAIN INJURY; CLINICAL PRACTICE; CLINICAL RESEARCH; CONFERENCE PAPER; CONSCIOUSNESS DISORDER; HUMAN; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATIENT CARE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; RATING SCALE; SCORING SYSTEM; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

CONSCIOUSNESS DISORDERS; EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE; HUMANS; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PROGNOSIS;

EID: 78649729315     PISSN: 00039993     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.apmr.2010.07.218     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (131)

1. S. Laureys, F. Perrin, C. Schnakers, M. Boly, and S. Majerus Residual cognitive function in comatose, vegetative and minimally conscious states Curr Opin Neurol 18 2005 726 733
2. J. Giacino, and C. Smart Recent advances in behavioral assessment of individuals with disorders of consciousness Curr Opin Neurol 20 2007 614 619
3. N.L. Childs, W.N. Mercer, and H.W. Child Accuracy of diagnosis of persistent vegetative state Neurology 43 1993 1465 1467
4. K. Andrews, L. Murphy, R. Munday, and C. Littlewood Misdiagnosis of the vegetative state: retrospective study in a rehabilitation unit BMJ 313 1996 13 16
5. C. Schnakers, A. Vanhaudenhuyse, and J. Giacino Diagnostic accuracy of the vegetative and minimally conscious state: clinical consensus versus standardized neurobehavioral assessment BMC Neurol 9 2009 35
6. B. Kotchoubey, S. Lang, and G. Mezger Information processing in severe disorders of consciousness: vegetative state and minimally conscious state Clin Neurophysiol 116 2005 2441 2453
7. S. Laureys, J. Giacino, N. Schiff, M. Schabus, and A. Owen How should functional imaging of patients with disorders of consciousness contribute to their clinical rehabilitation needs? Curr Opin Neurol 19 2006 520 527
8. F. Perrin, C. Schnakers, and C. Degueldre Brain response to one's own name in vegetative state, minimally conscious state and locked-in syndrome Arch Neurol 63 2006 562 569
9. J. Giacino, J. Hirsch, N. Schiff, and S. Laureys Functional neuroimaging applications for assessment and rehabilitation planning in patients with disorders of consciousness Arch Phys Med Rehabil 87 Suppl 2 2006 S67 S76
10. A. Owen, and M. Coleman Functional neuroimaging of the vegetative state Nat Rev Neurosci 9 2008 235 243
11. C. Schnakers, F. Perrin, and M. Schabus Voluntary brain processing in disorders of consciousness Neurology 71 2008 1614 1620
12. F. Plum, and J. Posner The pathologic physiology of signs and symptoms of coma: the diagnosis of stupor and coma 3rd ed. 1982 FA Davis Philadelphia
13. American Academy of Neurology Quality Standards Subcommittee Practice parameter: assessment and management of persons in the persistent vegetative state Neurology 45 1995 1015 1018
14. J.T. Giacino, S. Ashwal, and N. Childs The minimally conscious state: definition and diagnostic criteria Neurology 58 2002 349 353
15. F. Plum Coma and related global disturbances of the human conscious state E. Jones, P. Peters, Cerebral cortex Vol 9 1991 Plenum Pr New York
16. Multi-Society Task Force Report on PVS Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state N Engl J Med 330 1994 1499 1508 1572-9
17. B. Jennett, and F. Plum Persistent vegetative state after brain damage: a syndrome in search of a name Lancet 1 1972 734 737
18. J.T. Giacino, and K. Kalmar The vegetative and minimally conscious states: a comparison of clinical features and functional outcome J Head Trauma Rehabil 12 1997 36 51
19. J.T. Giacino, and N.D. Zasler Outcome after severe traumatic brain injury: coma, the vegetative state, and the minimally responsive state J Head Trauma Rehabil 10 1995 40 56
20. G. Teasdale, and B. Jennett Assessment of coma and impaired consciousness Lancet 2 1974 81 84
21. B.J. Ansell, and J.E. Keenan The Western Neuro Sensory Stimulation Profile: a tool for assessing slow-to-recover head-injured patients Arch Phys Med Rehabil 70 1989 104 108
22. J.T. Giacino, M.A. Kezmarsky, J. DeLuca, and K.D. Cicerone Monitoring rate of recovery to predict outcome in minimally responsive patients Arch Phys Med Rehabil 72 1991 897 901
23. M. Rappaport, A.M. Dougherty, and D.L. Kelting Evaluation of coma and vegetative states Arch Phys Med Rehabil 73 1992 628 634
24. W. Edlund, G. Gronseth, Y. So, and G. Franklin Clinical practice guideline process manual 2004 American Academy of Neurology St Paul
25. S.A. Mayer, L.J. Dennis, and S. Peery Quantification of lethargy in the neuro-ICU: the 60-second test Neurology 61 2003 543 545
26. E.A. Freeman The Coma Exit Chart: assessing the patient in prolonged coma and the vegetative state Brain Inj 10 1996 615 624
27. E.A. Freeman The clinical assessment of coma Neuropsychol Rehabil 3 1993 139 147
28. E.A. Freeman Protocols for the vegetative state Brain Inj 11 1997 837 849
29. M.L. Gruner, and D. Terhaag Multimodal early onset stimulation (MEOS) in rehabilitation after brain injury Brain Inj 14 2000 585 594
30. M. Lippert-Gruner, C. Wedekind, R.I. Ernestus, and N. Klug Early rehabilitative concepts in therapy of the comatose brain injured patients Acta Neurochir Suppl 79 2002 21 23
31. J.T. Giacino, and K. Kalmar Diagnostic and prognostic guidelines for the vegetative and minimally conscious states Neuropsychol Rehabil 15 2005 166 174
32. K. Kalmar, and J.T. Giacino The JFK Coma Recovery ScaleRevised Neuropsychol Rehabil 15 2005 454 460
33. M. Pilon, and S.J. Sullivan Motor profile of patients in minimally responsive and persistent vegetative states Brain Inj 10 1996 421 437
34. M. Rappaport The Disability Rating and Coma/Near-Coma scales in evaluating severe head injury Neuropsychol Rehabil 15 2005 442 453
35. T.L. Pape, R.G. Senno, A. Guernon, and J.P. Kelly A measure of neurobehavioral functioning after coma Part II: clinical and scientific implementation J Rehabil Res Dev 42 2005 19 27
36. T. Ohta Phenomenological aspects of consciousnessits disturbance in acute and chronic stages Acta Neurochir 93 2005 191 193
37. E.F. Wijdicks Clinical scales for comatose patients: the Glasgow Coma Scale in historical context and the new FOUR score Rev Neurol Dis 3 2006 109 117
38. A. Benzer, G. Mitterschiffthaler, and M. Marosi Prediction of non-survival after trauma: Innsbruck Coma Scale Lancet 338 1991 977 978
39. A. Benzer, C. Traweger, D. Ofner, M. Marosi, G. Luef, and E. Schmutzhard Statistical modelling in analysis of outcome after trauma Glasgow-Coma-Scale and Innsbruck-Coma-Scale Anasthesiol Intensivmed Notfallmed Schmerzther 30 1995 231 235
40. N. Neumann, and B. Kotchoubey Assessment of cognitive functions in severely paralysed and severely brain-damaged patients: neuropsychological and electrophysiological methods Brain Res Brain Res Protoc 14 2004 25 36
41. F.M. Cossa, M. Fabiani, A. Farinato, M. Laiacona, and E. Capitani The "preliminary neuropsychological battery": an instrument to grade the cognitive level of minimally responsive patients Brain Inj 13 1999 583 592
42. R. Noda, Y. Maeda, and A. Yoshino Effects of musicokinetic therapy and spinal cord stimulation on patients in a persistent vegetative state Acta Neurochir Suppl 87 2003 23 26
43. R. Noda, Y. Maeda, and A. Yoshino Therapeutic time window for musicokinetic therapy in a persistent vegetative state after severe brain damage Brain Inj 18 2004 509 515
44. D. Stalhammar, and J.E. Starmark Assessment of responsiveness in head injury patients: the Glasgow Coma Scale and some comments on alternative methods Acta Neurochir 36 1986 91 94
45. J.E. Starmark, and S. Lindgren Possible mechanisms of "vegetative state." Acta Neurochir Suppl 36 1986 121 122
46. J.E. Starmark, and S. Lindgren Is it possible to define a general "conscious level"? Acta Neurochir 36 1986 103 105
47. J.E. Starmark, and D. Stilhammer Assessment of responsiveness: a comparison between the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and the Reaction Level Scale (RLS-85) Acta Neurochir Wien 84 1987 150 151
48. S.C. Stein, C. Spettell, G. Young, and S.E. Ross Limitations of neurological assessment in mild head injury Brain Inj 7 1993 425 430
49. S.M. Walther, U. Jonasson, and H. Gill Comparison of the Glasgow Coma Scale and the Reaction Level Scale for assessment of cerebral responsiveness in the critically ill Intensive Care Med 29 2003 933 938
50. J.E. Starmark, D. Stlhammar, and E. Holmgren The Reaction Level Scale (RLS85): manual and guidelines Acta Neurochir 91 1988 12 20
51. S.L. Wilson, D. Brock, G.E. Powell, H. Thwaites, and K. Elliott Constructing arousal profiles for vegetative state patientsa preliminary report Brain Inj 10 1996 105 113
52. S.L. Wilson Magnetic-resonance imaging and prediction of recovery from post-traumatic vegetative state Lancet 352 1998 485
53. H. Gill-Thwaites, and R. Munday The Sensory Modality Assessment and Rehabilitation Technique (SMART): a comprehensive integrated assessment and treatment protocol for the vegetative state and minimally responsive patient Neuropsychol Rehabil 9 1999 305 320
54. S. Majerus, H. Gill-Thwaites, K. Andrews, and S. Laureys Behavioral evaluation of consciousness in severe brain damage Prog Brain Res 150 2005 397 413
55. F.C. Wilson, L.E. Graham, and T. Watson Vegetative and minimally conscious states: serial assessment approaches in diagnosis and management Neuropsychol Rehabil 15 2005 431 441
56. M.E. Hall, S. MacDonald, and G.C. Young The effectiveness of directed multisensory stimulation versus non-directed stimulation in comatose CHI patients: pilot study of a single subject design Brain Inj 6 1992 435 445
57. A.E. Davis, and A. Gimenez Cognitive-behavioral recovery in comatose patients following auditory sensory stimulation J Neurosci Nurs 35 2003 202 209 14
58. E. Berger, G. Wrgtter, A. Oppolzer, J. Kessler, K. Vavrik, and S. Fiala Neurological rehabilitation in children and adolescents Pediatr Rehabil 1 1997 229 233
59. E. Berger, K. Vavrik, and P. Hochgatterer Vigilance scoring in children with acquired brain injury: Vienna Vigilance Score in comparison with usual coma scales J Child Neurol 16 2001 236 240
60. S. Horn, A. Shiel, and L. McLellan A review of behavioural assessment scales for monitoring recovery in and after coma with pilot data on a new scale of visual awareness Neuropsychol Rehabil 3 1993 121 137
61. F.C. Wilson, J. Harpur, T. Watson, and J.I. Morrow Vegetative state and minimally responsive patientsregional survey, long-term case outcomes and service recommendations NeuroRehabilitation 17 2002 231 236
62. A. Shiel, and B.A. Wilson Can behaviours observed in the early stages of recovery after traumatic brain injury predict poor outcome? Neuropsychol Rehabil 15 2005 494 502
63. F.C. Wilson, V. Elder, E. McCrudden, and S. Caldwell Analysis of Wessex Head Injury Matrix (WHIM) scores in consecutive vegetative and minimally conscious state patients Neuropsychol Rehabil 2009 754 760
64. B.J. Ansell Slow-to-recover brain-injured patients: rationale for treatment J Speech Hear Res 34 1991 1017 1022
65. J.E. Keenan Assessment tools for severely head-injured adults Cogn Rehabil 7 1989 24 26
66. M.H. Lammi, V.H. Smith, R.L. Tate, and C.M. Taylor The minimally conscious state and recovery potential: a follow-up study 2 to 5 years after traumatic brain injury Arch Phys Med Rehabil 86 2005 746 754
67. P.D. Patrick, M.L. Buck, M.R. Conaway, and J.A. Blackman The use of dopamine enhancing medications with children in low response states following brain injury Brain Inj 17 2003 497 506
68. C.M. Taylor, V.H. Aird, R.L. Tate, and M.H. Lammi Sequence of recovery during the course of emergence from the minimally conscious state Arch Phys Med Rehabil 88 2007 521 525
69. M.W. O'Dell, P. Jasin, N. Lyons, M. Stivers, and F. Meszaro Standardized assessment instruments for minimally-responsive, brain-injured patients NeuroRehabilitation 6 1996 45 55
70. M.W. O'Dell, P. Jasin, M. Stivers, N. Lyons, S. Schmidt, and D.E. Moore Interrater reliability of the Coma Recovery Scale J Head Trauma Rehabil 11 1996 61 66
71. C. Schnakers, S. Majerus, and S. Laureys Bispectral analysis of electroencephalogram signals during recovery from coma: preliminary findings Neuropsychol Rehabil 15 2005 381 388
72. J.T. Giacino, K. Kalmar, and J. Whyte The JFK Coma Recovery Scale-Revised: measurement characteristics and diagnostic utility Arch Phys Med Rehabil 85 2004 2020 2029
73. C. Schnakers, S. Majerus, and J. Giacino A French validation study of the Coma Recovery Scale-Revised Brain Inj 22 2008 786 792
74. L.R. Talbot, and H.A. Whitaker Brain-injured persons in an altered state of consciousness: measures and intervention strategies Brain Inj 8 1994 689 699
75. D.E. Stanczak, J.G. White 3rd, and W.D. Gouview Assessment of level of consciousness following severe neurological insult: a comparison of the psychometric qualities of the Glasgow Coma Scale and the Comprehensive Level of Consciousness Scale J Neurosurg 60 1984 955 960
76. M.D. Johnston, L. Thomas, and D.E. Stanczak Construct validity of the Comprehensive Level of Consciousness Scale: a comparison of behavioral and neurodiagnostic measures Arch Clin Neuropsychol 11 1996 703 711
77. T.L.B. Pape, A.W. Heinemann, J.P. Kelly, A.G. Hurder, and S. Lundgren A measure of neurobehavioral functioning after coma Part I: theory, reliability, and validity of Disorders of Consciousness Scale J Rehabil Res Dev 42 2005 1 17
78. T.L. Pape, S. Lundgren, and A.W. Heinemann Establishing a prognosis for functional outcome during coma recovery Brain Inj 20 2006 743 758
79. T.L. Pape, C. Tang, and A. Guernon Predictive value of the Disorders of Consciousness Scale (DOCS) PM R 1 2009 152 161
80. E.F. Wijdicks, W.R. Bamlet, B.V. Maramattom, E.M. Manno, and R.L. McClelland Validation of a new coma scale: the FOUR score Ann Neurol 58 2005 585 593
81. C.A. Wolf, E.F.M. Wijdicks, W.R. Bamlet, and R.L. McClelland Further validation of the FOUR score coma scale by intensive care nurses Mayo Clin Proc 82 2007 435 438
82. L.G. Stead, E.F.M. Wijdicks, and A. Bhagra Validation of a new coma scale, the FOUR score, in the emergency department Neurocrit Care 10 2009 50 54
83. C. Eken, M. Kartal, A. Bucanli, and O. Eray Comparison of the Full Outline of Unresponsiveness Score Coma Scale and the Glasgow Coma Scale in an emergency setting population Eur J Emerg Med 16 2009 29 36
84. K.K. Mukherjee, B.S. Sharma, S.M. Ramanathan, N. Khandelwal, and V.K. Kak A mathematical outcome prediction model in severe head injury: a pilot study Neurol India 48 2000 43 48
85. J.D. Born The Glasgow-Liege Scale: prognostic value and evolution of motor response and brain stem reflexes after severe head injury Acta Neurochir 91 1988 1 11
86. J.D. Born, P. Hans, A. Albert, and J. Bonnal Interobserver agreement in assessment of motor response and brain stem reflexes Neurosurgery 20 1987 513 517
87. J.D. Born, A. Albert, P. Hans, and J. Bonnal Relative prognostic value of best motor response and brain stem reflexes in patients with severe head injury Neurosurgery 16 1985 595 601
88. M.N. Diringer, and D.F. Edwards Does modification of the Innsbruck and the Glasgow Coma Scales improve their ability to predict functional outcome? Arch Neurol 54 1997 606 611
89. K. Berek, A. Schinnerl, C. Traweger, P. Lechleitner, M. Baubin, and F. Aichner The prognostic significance of coma-rating, duration of anoxia and cardiopulmonary resuscitation in out-of hospital cardiac arrest J Neurol 244 1997 556 561
90. N. Borer-Alafi, M. Gil, L. Sazbon, and C. Korn Loewenstein communication scale for the minimally responsive patient Brain Inj 16 2002 593 609
91. A.J. Johnstone, J.C. Lohlun, and J.D. Miller A comparison of the Glasgow Coma Scale and the Swedish Reaction Level Scale Brain Inj 7 1993 501 506
92. M. Matousek, E. Takeuchi, J.E. Starmark, and D. Stalhammar Quantitative EEG analysis as a supplement to the clinical coma scale RLS85 Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 40 1996 824 831
93. D. Stlhammar, J.E. Starmark, and E. Holmgren Assessment of responsiveness in acute cerebral disorders: a multicentre study on the reaction level scale (RLS 85) Acta Neurochir 90 1988 73 80
94. J.E. Starmark, D. Stlhammar, E. Holmgren, and B. Rosander A comparison of the Glasgow Coma Scale and the Reaction Level Scale (RLS85) J Neurosurg 69 1988 699 706
95. J. Tesseris, N. Pantazidis, C. Routsi, and D. Fragoulakis A comparative study of the Reaction Level Scale (RLS85) with Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) and Edinburgh-2 Coma Scale (modified) (E2CS(M)) Acta Neurochir 110 1991 65 76
96. S.L. Wilson, G.E. Powell, D. Brock, and H. Thwaites Behavioural differences between patients who emerged from vegetative state and those who did not Brain Inj 10 1996 509 516
97. S.L. Wilson, G.E. Powell, D. Brock, and H. Thwaites Vegetative state and responses to sensory stimulation: an analysis of 24 cases Brain Inj 10 1996 807 818
98. H. Gill-Thwaites The Sensory Modality Assessment Rehabilitation Techniquea tool for assessment and treatment of patients with severe brain injury in a vegetative state Brain Inj 11 1997 723 734
99. S.L. Wilson, and H. Gill-Thwaites Early indication of emergence from vegetative state derived from assessments with the SMARTa preliminary report Brain Inj 14 2000 319 331
100. H. Gill-Thwaites, and R. Munday The Sensory Modality Assessment and Rehabilitation Technique (SMART): a valid and reliable assessment for vegetative state and minimally conscious state patients Brain Inj 18 2004 1255 1269
101. M.A. Rader, J.B. Alston, and D.W. Ellis Sensory stimulation of severely brain-injured patients Brain Inj 3 1989 141 147
102. M.A. Rader, and D.W. Ellis The Sensory Stimulation Assessment Measure (SSAM): a tool for early evaluation of severely brain-injured patients Brain Inj 8 1994 309 321
103. A. Shiel, S.A. Horn, B.A. Wilson, M.J. Watson, M.J. Campbell, and D.L. McLellan The Wessex Head Injury Matrix (WHIM) main scale: a preliminary report on a scale to assess and monitor patient recovery after severe head injury Clin Rehabil 14 2000 408 416
104. S. Majerus, M. Van der Linden, and A. Shiel Wessex Head Injury Matrix and Glasgow/GlasgowLige Coma Scale: a validation and comparison study Neuropsychol Rehabil 10 2000 167 184
105. B.J. Ansell Slow-to-recover patients: improvement to rehabilitation readiness J Head Trauma Rehabil 8 1993 88 98
106. B.J. Ansell Visual tracking behavior in low functioning head-injured adults Arch Phys Med Rehabil 76 1995 726 731
107. A. Anastasi Psychological testing 6th ed. 1988 MacMillan Publishing New York
108. E.M. Andresen Criteria for assessing the tools of disability outcomes research Arch Phys Med Rehabil 81 Suppl 2 2000 S15 S20
109. M. Bdard, N.J. Martin, P. Krueger, and K. Brazil Assessing reproducibility of data obtained with instruments based on continuous measurements Exp Aging Res 26 2000 353 365
110. A.K. Biddle, L.R. Watson, C.R. Hooper, K.N. Lohr, and S.F. Sutton Criteria for determining disability in speech-language disorders AHRQ Evid Rep Technol Assess 52 2002 1 60
111. J.M. Bland, and D.G. Altman Cronbach's alpha BMJ (Clinical Res Ed) 314 1997 572
112. D.G. Bonnet Sample size requirements for estimating intraclass correlations with desired precision Stat Med 21 2002 1331 1335
113. E.G. Carmines, and R.A. Zeller Reliability and validity 1980 Sage Publications London
114. J. Cohen, and P. Cohen Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences 1989 Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Hillsdale
115. L. Crocker, and J. Algina Introduction to classical and modern test theory 1986 Harcourt Brace Orlando
116. R.F. DeVellis Scale development: theory and applications 2nd ed. Applied Social Research Methods Series Vol 26 2003 Sage Publications Thousand Oaks
117. J. Fleiss, and J.A. Cohen The equivalence of weighted kappa and the intraclass correlation coefficient as measures of reliability Educ Psychol Meas 33 1973 613 619
118. J.L. Fleiss Statistical methods for rates and proportions 1981 Wiley New York
119. J.L. Fleiss Design and analysis of clinical experiments 1986 Wiley New York
120. M. Frank-Stromborg, and S. Olsen Instruments for clinical health-care research 3rd ed. 2004 Jones and Bartlett Publishers Sudbury
121. J.E. Lexell, and D.Y. Downham How to assess the reliability of measurements in rehabilitation Am J Phys Med Rehabil 84 2005 719 723
122. J.C. Nunnally, and I.H. Bernstein Psychometric theory 3rd ed. 1994 McGraw-Hill New York
123. T. Raykov Equivalent structural equation models and group equality constraints Multivariate behavioral research 32 1997 95 105
124. M.M. Shoukri Sample size requirements for the design of reliability study: review and new results Stat Methods Med Res 13 2004 251 271
125. P.E. Shrout Measurement reliability and agreement in psychiatry Stat Methods Med Res 7 1998 301 317
126. J. Cameron, and M. Gignac "Timing is Right": a conceptual framework for addressing the support needs of family caregivers to stroke survivors from hospital to the home Patient Educ Couns 70 2008 305 314
127. S. Hillier, and J. Metzer Awareness and perceptions of outcomes after traumatic brain injury Brain Inj 11 1997 525 536
128. R. Glasgow, D. Magid, A. Beck, D. Ritzqoller, and P. Estabrooks Practical clinical trials for translating research to practice: design and measurement recommendations Med Care 43 2005 551 557
129. S. Tunis, D. Stryer, and C. Clancey Practical clinical trials: increasing the value of clinical research for decision making in clinical and health policy JAMA 290 2003 1624 1632
130. J. Whyte Clinical trials in rehabilitation: what are the obstacles? Am J Phys Med Rehabil 82 Suppl 10 2003 S16 S21
131. E. Hahn, and D. Cella Health outcomes assessment in vulnerable populations: measurement challenges and recommendations Arch Phys Med Rehabil 84 Suppl 2 2003 S35 S42